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■i1» St

ROMANCE OF
INDIAN EMBROIDERY

*'*

by ■

KAMALA S. DONGERKERY

LTD.

ROW, FORT,

BOMBAY

FIRST PUBLISHED 1951

Stt and PHnttd by K. S. Arora at Thaehw*a Prm,

Oak Lana, Fort, Bombay, and PubUabad fisy Mm
for Thaehar^ Co., Ltd., Fort, Bombay.

EMiiHOIDKHY MAP OF INDIA AND

PAKISTAN

1, Ktisidu Kusliinir.

'2. Phniknri Punjalt.

S. Sind Fiinbroidrry.

4. HhIucIu Kinhroidcry,

5. Ziirdo'/.i -Oold iind Silver Work,
rt. 1‘utch Kiinbroidery.

7. KnHiiiiwiir l-'.niliroidery.

8. (’liikmikari Dttnr Prudesh.

9. Kusuti Karimtnk.

10. Kiiiithii -Hongiil.

11, Luces 'rraviineore.

PREFACE

/^OLOUR, form, movement and sound have been universally recognized
as media for the expression of art, and the different fine arts are
usually classified according to the medium employed. Embroidery
combines the first two media, namely, colour and form. Whatever be the
medium, the purpose of all art is two-fold, self-expression and the communica¬
tion of values.

Needlecraft occupies a unique place in the history and civilisation

of a country, and embroidery affords a most fascinating and romantic

subject for study. This purely domestic art has cemented the bonds of

friendship, not only between the provinces of our own country, but between

different countries of the world. It is amazing how the apparently

insignificant needle, employed by the woman in the home to adorn her

own clothes and other things of utility, can be a potent factor in the growtli

of civilisation, and instrumental in promoting world culture. Although

embroidery is classed among the “ erafts,” it plays a definite and important

part in the lives of people, since it satisfies the aesthetic sense of its possessor.

By its universal appeal embroidery has brought people together to appreciate

what is useful, beautiful or exquisite, irrespective of its origin, and has

caused man-made barriers of nationality, country, community and race,

and even of different stages of civilisation, to recede into the background,

making the whole world kin, not only in the immediate present but in the
past as well.

A beautiful piece of embroidery, like any other piece of art, reveals
a cultural background and fulfils an important mission of art, no matter
what form it may take. Visual art of this type has an advantage over
1 erature, because differences of language and modes of thought, which
constitute obstacles in the understanding of poetry, philosophy, drama and
other forms of literary art, do not prevent the enjoyment of beautv, which

speaks with one tongue and makes its appeal to the heart with a directness
w hich IS lacking in most other modes of communication.

tjZ. u™ and songs, the art of

embroidery has been handed down from generation to generation,
process enrichment ^

In this

political causes, are discernible. For a study, ho, r. one hTto”!:::^
more on literature -^ _ to aepena

tion is more easily available as to ikmigirand^^^^i^uTt;:^ L^unt":;

PREFACE

like Egypt wheve the tombs of the Pharaohs contain ancient embroidered
articles, or in others where Church embroidery has been famous. The
inherent acquisitive quality in human beings, museum collections and
literary sources, however, throw patches of light now and again.

The weaver, the printer and the artisan have many a time encioached
upon the secrets of pattern and design of the embroiderer. Nevertheless,
the latter can hold his head high and count with becoming pride upon the
patronage of true lovers of art. The embroiderer’s art has also found its
way into many useful cottage industries like those m leather, wool, gold
and silver lace, and carpets. In this process of development the art has
aided these cottage industries, with the result that several areas have
flourished as centres of such industries, providing employment and income
for a large number of their inhabitants. It is through the comparatively
unobtrusive art of embroidery that the Indian housewife gives expression
to her innate love of colour and form. The skill with which she executes
the stitches to form a pattern, the designs she selects, the colours she taste¬
fully chooses to present the pattern at its best, the materials on which she
works and the fineness of the finished product reveal the background of a
rich culture : they give artistic shape and form to the ideas and ideals whic
inspire the lives of the people and reflect the objects and surroundings which

strike the mind of the workers. .

A study of the various patterns of embroidery found m ditterent
areas of India enables one not only to gauge the cultural attainments of the
people among whom the artists were born, lived and worked, but to
reconstruct, as it were, the social, economic and political history of a bygone
era and a changing civilisation. Thus, it is possible to deduce the indigenous
products, the trade communications, the political institutions and religious
ideas of those who occupied the stage, and made their contribution to the
pageant of world history, at a given period. Like a song, a painting or a
piece of sculpture, embroidery symbolises the experience and aspirations ot

* ^ There is already a movement for the revival of the ancient arts and
handcrafts of this country, and it is hoped that the present book wilk by
interesting the public in the artistic achievements of our people, help to
S alive a haniraft which may not only help a part of the popula^ ”
eking out a living, but also provide scope for the expression of the artistic
urge which is to be found even amongst the humblest of citizens.

noMiiAY, April 30, mo. Kamala S, Dongeukeby,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

N the preparation of this book I have received help from many persons,

To all of them I convey my sincere thanks. I trust that its publication

will make them feel that their co-operation has not been in vain. I am

particularly indebted to three persons for encouraging me to fulfil a desire

long cherished by me. I will mention only two of them by name. As

member in charge of the Cultural Section of the All-India Women’s

Conference, I was planning to bring out a series of popular monographs on

the different types of Indian embroidery. I requested one or two friends

to write, and offered to furnish the material for the purpose. Shrimati

Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya, the then President of the A.I.W.C., however,

suggested that I should myself undertake the entire work. The idea of

the monographs did not materialise on account of various difficulties, and

this volume now emerges in a totally different and enlarged form. I

sought the advice of Dr. G. S. Ghurye, Professor of Sociology, University

of Bombay, who, encouraged me to go ahead, indicated to me the lines on

which I should proceed, and helped me with valuable suggestions. By

kindly acceding to my request to write an introduction to this book he has
put me under a further obligation.

I have had the good fortune of coming into contact with persons in
University circles, as will be evident from the names which follow

r*Qnnr\f O n r\ __ t • m ^ M ^

-- vYiiiy^ix lUUUW. I

cannot adequately express my gratitude to each and aU of them for all their
hdp Mahamahop^hyaya Dr. P. V. Kane, a former Vice-Chancellor of
he Umversity of Bombay, helped me with references to original Sanskrit
texts Mr. a N. Marshall, Librarian of the same University, selected for

^ ^ the relevant literature, even more than I could cope with. Dr S C

Nandimath, Principal of the Sri Basaveshwar College. Lgalkot, colieeted
or me a number of kasu^^ embroidery patterns, one of which adorns the
eov«. ftofessor S. N. Dhar of Kashmir collected and supplied n th

^Se^°“lev?rll'f ”‘7 on Kashmir

S:i7wh.'rw“

articles for the purposes of the illustrations from Mrs! ^o! R B°
thflSiiee otwiTMu'Ju^, B*omb!y ’ courtesy

s th*;xt rr

Ji,* > v*»

• • t

VIU

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Bombay, helped me with important data and suggestions. Miss Amy S.
H. J. Rustomjee, Principal of the Secondary Training College, Bombay,
lent me some rare books for reference. To them all, and to many more,
I offCT my hearty thanks. i

As it was not possible for me to see the book through the press in*
its final stages owing to my departure for Europe, I had to entrust the*
preparation of the index to some one else, and I am deeply grateful tq
Mr. D. N. Marshall who very kindly and willingly undertook this task.

I must not omit to acknowledge here the invaluable suggesl;ions and
help I have received from Mr. U. R. Rao, in the production of this book. >*•

Last but not least, I must thank my publishers for the special'
interest taken by them in this publication, but for which it would not hayn^
seen the light of day so soon.

Kamat.a S. Donoerebby.

INTRODUCTION

TUDENTS of the history and development of culture are convinced
that there is an innate disposition in man to beautify things. When
the European man of 20000 B.c. painted in the inaccessible and dark caves
or moulded and sculptured various scenes connected with his hunt, though
the motives were magical in origin they resulted in works of art' because
of his inborn sense of esthetics. This sense, sooner or later, impresses
beauty on utility and weds functionalism to aesthetics. We find other-
handiwork of his, like the handles of his hunting apparatus, treated witir
,*e same sense of proportion and balance which in pure technology confines
rtself to the appreciation and utilisation of material to the functional end"
W course there are other factors which condition the manifestation of this
drsposrtron both tn volume and depth. Different peoples and different
epochs of the same people, therefore, show only varying degr-ees of its
rea rsatron. Cultural hrstory, vrewed as a whole, whether from Paleolithic
Europe to Indran and Mexrcan civiUsations or from the world of primitive
people to modern civilisation, tells the one story of man’s ever recurrent
endeavour to impress beauty on the things that he fashions for everydav

X' “I Dongerkery’s book

m Roma^ of Indian Embroidery, demonstrates this truth even better

t^ the domestic and universal art of pottery. And that is the art of

Se^ft prototype of embroidery or

Zb Trt * “ Z oldest of domestic Lts

fhem l^'ZrhlZof Sue “

the monopoly of the male ha ^ ^ pot-making it became

feminine Li,

with wet mud aSd ted i„ fte Zn Th?

pottery, needless to say, are largely due to the Se oftLt “f T

Janus-like nature of ^tinf ftT. " idiosyncracy. The

basketry, it vies with potterv both i Ti? V aspect of

geometrical ornamentation in plah or in cor^^ /

^ S" »”«*■ b i-iy .'rtS

INTRODUCTION

and design. Nor is fine basketry unknown in Negro Africa, in Indonesia
and in the Pacific. Nearer home the varied products in this line sent out

by Southern India and Eastern India adorn the houses of many and the
markets of most cities. The fame of Eastern India for these articles is of
fairly long duration. The messenger from Pragjyotish (Assam), who came
to the court of King Harsha, is described as haA’ing brought many presents.
Some of the stuffs are described as having been accommodated in charming
and variously coloured cane-boxes. If baskets plaited out of grass or similar
things compete with and complement pottery, mats worked with the same
material relieve to some extent the heat-effects of summer months by
providing a smooth and cooling surface to the reclining bare back. In this
function the mat vies and competes with the carpet and the rug, which
represent almost the highwater mark of embroidery carried out by the
weaving method. That plaited stuff might have served as clothing is not
a mere fancy, even though the Hindustani proverb of shaukin bahurya chataika
lahanga envisages a mat as a skirt only in a ludicrous situation.

Plaiting has remained a domestic and a feminine art or craft. But
all its further developments either as weaving or as pure embroidery have
passed through the usual stages and only some of them have still remained
the domestic and feminine crafts that plaiting is, side by side with their
non-feminine and machine-controlled aspect.

The earliest specimens of embroidery are known to be what is
technically called tapestry. Tapestry is heavy fabric with a woven pattern
in it. The patterns may depict great and complicated scenes and may
illustrate a whole episode or even a whole life. As such it is not only a
handmaid of history, not only an illustrative art but a fairly worthy
substitute for painting. Many a time it has graced the walls of the mansions
of the great and the rich as well as the houses of the well-to-do either in
place of costlier paintings or as an additional embellishment.

Tapestry is described as a patterned heavy fabric woven by a
primitive and simple method, meant for decorative hanging or curtaining.
Its homologue is carpet and rug, which, being meant for being used as a
floor-covering, has generally much less design, and that too mostly
geometrical or floral. Though the best of the class of rugs and carpets are
fabrics with heavy foundation fortified with extra threads forming a pile,
so that the user’s feet may have the plush feeling, the early ones are believed
to have been made by the tapestry method, and hence were, like it, smooth¬
faced. Both these types of patterned fabrics from the beginning being of
the woven variety were the products of male and joint industry, wherein

INTRODUCTION

even small boys in large numbers could be employed, and not an art or a
craft of individual manipulation, much less a feminine one. Further the
craftsman and his employees depend on an artist who makes a sketch for
them which they always keep before them and copy out in their wea^ ing
of the complicated fabric. The craftsmen are thus neither independent
individual artists nor original designers. They are rather artifieers and
copyists.

Both the types of fabrics have formed an important component of

interior decoration. Embroidery being in essence the embellishment of

a stuff through the execution of some pattern or design, tapestry and rugs

and carpets have a right to be considered either as its prototype or its

sister or both. In view of its historical antiquity above all other types of

patterned fabrics, excepting perhaps some embroidered ones whieh will

be presently referred to, tapestry at least is assured of it. In Egypt any

incontestible piece of embroidery is about 1200 years later than the earliest

attested tapestry, which continued to be produced till the end of the Roman

period about the 6th century a.d. Later tapestry in Europe shows a much

greater connection with embroidery, the design being worked in with the

n^dle over woven cloth. And in books on needlework simple tapestry is

flUly described and declared to be an art still cultivated by females. From

the technical point of view it is worked with some stitehes which are common
to other kinds of needlework.

■ It is very interesting to note that the luxurious life of the Egvntian

Sre ChristSThT^t 15of years

~Sm Erir“"Tt master-pieces of

me ftom Europe. The finest carpets on the other hand are undouLdly

This contrast in artistic or craft achievement

Xix U.liicrcin -

England

The inventorv nf contemporary.

2 000 nieces ^ t f,. ^ f at his death enumerated over

S the 4 of tbnf 7^“-th:7“: ‘“•‘-.‘o imply

Akbar

iTte^reS^S*th7?ff”' “““ m or craft achievement

England L‘7hlf Tr!?.”' ‘'f potentates, one

. art. u ‘=”P"‘-''oaving industry in India. Tapestry not beS^

it.

INTRODUCTION

before his date, been using their silk brocades for beautifying their homes
with hangings. After the invention of paper poorer sections of society
could satisfy their craving for interior decoration through the use of wall¬
paper. Wall-paper, whether hand-printed as some of the finest was or
otherwise, proclaimed its affinities with both painting and tapestry by its
designs. Cheap wall-paper coming first from China and then from Britain
was, and even now is, used in our homes to cover up the bare walls at the

time of the Ganapati festival, which is in part at least an occasion for
aesthetic satisfaction.

The arts and crafts so far touched upon have the factor of a satisfying
design as their common basis. Fine arts are those among the arts and
industries cultivated for the satisfaction of wants which also minister to
man’s love of beauty. The above arts and crafts therefore are fine arts,
design being intended both for utility and beauty. The same factor of
design connects the above-mentioned arts and crafts with embroidery.
Embroidery in one form at least has served the same purpose as tapestry,
brocades having been used either as curtains or decorative hangings.
Brocade proper is design in silk, silver or gold thread worked with the needle
over some costly stuff, or design woven into it. Generally embroidery
requires the use of the needle, either ordinary or of some special type. And
the antiquity of the ordinary needle, though not of steel, is very hoary, being
known to Palaeolithic Europeans. In our country it must have been known
even earlier than the Vedic period. Kashmiri craftsmen have distinguished
between woven and embroidered stulfs by designating the former variety
as Kanikar and the latter as Amlikar.

If Egypt claims the palm of antiquity in respect of tapestry, our
country can certainly carry it for gold-embroidered stuff or brocade. The
term pesos occurring in early as well as late Vedic literature, is considered
by most competent students to connote embroidered garments. An
embroidered garment is referred to as being worn by a female dancer. Even
the category of the special weaver seems to have been then distinguished.
And what is even more interesting is that the art or industry seems to have
been a female occupation. It ispesaskari, a female weaver of embroidered
garments, that is specifically mentioned. Ever since, though other
countries like China, for example, have produced fine brocade, India has
continued to be famous for its kinkhab.

This type of embroidery, embellishment of a piece of fabric with
some design worked with precious or other material, is referred to by

in the beginning of the 8rd century b.c. In a passage in the

INTRODUCTION

XU]

Harshacharita by Bana in the description of the preparations for the
marriage of Rajyasri occurs a reference which is not properly understood.
It appears to me that it refers to some embroidery being carried out. We
are informed that some persons were engaged in embellishing the hems of
garments with the drawing of foliage in the upside-down manner. This
description reminds one of the darning stitch done from the back in their
phulkari work by Jat women in the Punjab and Rajasthan. From the same
passage we learn that bodices or short jackets were embroidered with large
pearls being sewn into them. Abul Fazl has listed at least two varieties of
brocade from Gujarat favoured by his Imperial master.

Brocade and tapestry, both costly stuffs, have between them given

rise in modern times to cheaper brocaded stuff. There has been a great

demand for decorative textiles, enriched after the pattern of embroidery

or tapstry for purposes of interior decoration. The sofa-upholstery is an

addition to the mattress covering and the table covers. Cotton brocade

made by modern power-looms satisfies the vast demand. Thus one kind

of embroidery is now both a domestic industry as well as a machine-and-
factory controlled one.

Lace furnishes a type of needlework which partakes of the nature
of pure embroidery on woven fabric as well as of knitting. Lace may be
described as ornamental hemming, bordering or addition which is to be
sewed to the garment to be embeUished. It is either done in the proper
embroidery fashion on the foundation of woven fabric or by itself. When
1 IS made in the latter way it is either prepared with the help of two plain

nSirhn W <»■ a particular ty^e of

nd shuttles it partakes of weavmg. As in the case of tapestry the earliest
specimens nf i? __ ^ ^ earnest

liie pieces there discovered are ascribed

piaitmg. Here is another Imk between plaiting and embroidery Tt is «

e ot the predilection for gold ornaments. Many of them are

XIV

INTRODUCTION

known to be elaborate. Some of them made in what is known as filigree
work, which is regarded as the finest of its class, might be looked upon as
actual substitutes of lace. We know that from about the 13th century
Europe sported lace as an item of costume. Sartorial taste and fashion
dictated the use of lace round the neck, about the Avrists and also on other
parts of the body, AAdiether of males or females. And the de\^elopment of
designs and patterns was so characteristic of ages and periods that experts
can distinguish a piece of lace by the century Avhose typical vogue it
represents. The same levelling influence which turned tapestry into a
machine-controlled craft and engendered the decorative wall-paper added
lace, too, to the list of machine-made goods.

The claim of embroidery to be considered one of the fine arts lies in
its capacity to give aesthetic satisfaction through its design. The study
of the designs employed in embroidery among different peoples and in
different States of the Indian Union is thus a study in the artistic feelings
and achievements and in cultural similarities and dissimilarities. The
reader will be thankful to Mrs. Dongerkery for having drawn his attention
to them. Some of the designs will be found recurring in various parts of
India and common to some peoples outside India. It would be worthwhile
to compare the designs of embroidery with the patterns generally favoured
in other purely feminine arts, like that of the Rangoli or Alpana drawing
of patterns and figures on plastered ground with some powders. Both
these arts are essentially folk-arts, though embroidery, in so far as it has
also a machine-controlled branch, has latterly come to have the status of a
“classical” industry or craft. A tattooer too uses a number of patterns
and designs. Though he caters for the folk-feeling his art or craft cannot
be considered to be a folk-art, even if sometimes the tattooer might be a
woman. The goldsmith’s art, particularly filigree work, too, is the craft ot
experts. Yet the patterns and desips frequently met with in tattooing
and in filigree work would be interesting for comparison.

Two other arts, those of dance and music, are by commp consent
great ones with a universal appeal, and are not necessarily feminine. Bot
of them in most of the civilised societies have a classical and a folk branch.
And though folk-dance and folk-music are liked and encouraged, particular y
after the arts and crafts and folk-culture movements, yet the classical
dances whether of Pavlova or Nijinsky and the classical music of Beethoven
or Mozart are superior in technique and in aesthetic satisfaction, l^o -
culture movement is very recent in our country. Folk-dance an o ■

music therefore are just being raked up for the delectation of the elite.

INTRODUCTION

classical dances of Uday Shankar immensely surpass the folk-dances of oui

good fellows, who go about Bombay at the time of the Krishna’s eighth

or the Ganesa’s fourth, both in technique and refinement and in consequent

delight. The music of Mr. Narayanarao Rajahamsa alias Balagandharva

held spell-bound large numbers of 6\ite audience for years, whereas the

folk-music of the songs sung by women while grinding corn in pairs has

hardly appealed to those ears much less in large numbers. Even the

folk-music of the Tamasha, which draws large audiences from a particular

section of the people, depends for its limited success on many other factors

The folk-branches of music and dance are rated, and are, definitely lower
than the classical branches in their aesthetic appeals.

cu ^ well-known to dite readers that the classical dances of

Uday Shankar or any other artiste depend almost on an unbroken tradition
which furnishes both the themes as well as the poses and movements
developed and described by Bharata and other ancient writers on and
practitioners of the art of dance. Bharata’s Nat^asastra and Abhinava-
gupta ^ Mtrror of Geaures are but two among the many treatises on dancing

bhei? patterns, to fix them and to hand

exoTrimerned with xZf th*‘‘‘‘'^f 7

perimented with. That the melodies or ragas of our classical music are
certain fixed combinations of notes is common knowledge. That there

iium tne iips ot trained musicians can doubt wivo+ ^

thf slgs^lf The^arnTw te I “T*®™

ctoxrri f ^ themselves moulded on the nattern of

even the meanL^^^^^^ so^ ZI TZ combination

Melodies and eombination of sounds^tb^ IT ^ utterly ignored.

arrangements have been fixed for long ages Tast 'k^r^"'^ and standard

classical music are selectively fixed. ^ ^ P Patterns and designs of

them for^'rVcfeU^etoTn f

their civiUsation and also the Chinese The Gre!.r*H^’^®®^i“^ ‘’'® **®‘®*'*

for the sake of ehange and mere wiet ^ Thtl h ^i u ®^®''® ***

diseovered that ehange for the sake nf^ I, ^ ®“oestors

g lor tne sake of change produces variety whose

XVI

INTRODUCTION

significance is only negative. It tends to establish the primacy of standard
patterns and designs by its evanescence. Such change may and does
create exhilaration and even excitement but cannot lead to aesthetic delight,
which is a much more abiding state of mind. Appreciation of beauty, thus
conceived, in the long run becomes a craving for proportion, symmetry and

balance.

Many a design and pattern of embroidery, as Mrs. Dongerkery points
out, are common over many parts of India. I have no doubt that they
have been so for a long time. Embroidery has also one advantage over
music and dance. And that is that in spite of a machine-controlled aspect
that has developed, the domestic aspect of it is more satisfying than the
former. Here the domestic and the feminine craft remains the classical,

though it is also the folk branch.

Two English poet painters, William Morris and Dante Gabriel
Rossetti, in the age when the aim of civilisation was being questioned and
the need for its being turned into culture was being vigorously propounded,
started the Arts and Crafts Movement about 1875. The story of its
successes and failures cannot be narrated here. Nor need I discuss the
soundness of all its aspects. That the movement did some good to British
craftsmanship there is no doubt. The situation under which the movement
had been bom is more or less recurring in our country today. This is the
result of what sociologists designate as cultural lag. It is a happy augury
that in keeping with the briUiant past of arts and crafts in our country the
call for the appreciation of minor arts and their cultivation should be pro¬
claimed at such an early stage of our industrialisation. Even more significant
is the fact that such a distinguished lady social worker as Mrs. Dongerkery
should make a serious study, involving enormous trouble, of one feminine
art. May this romance of embroidery lead to the happy marriage ot

dom€» 9 ticity with arts and crafts !

Khab, Bombay 21,

6’^4r50.

G. S. Ghubye.

% 9

• ♦

CONTENTS

Page

EMBROIDERY MAP OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN

... Frontispiece

PREFACE .

♦ A • ♦ • •

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .

♦ •

•••

• • • • • • Vll

INTRODUCTION .

•

’ • • • •*• • . . ...

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

• • «

••• •••

XVlll

Chapter

I IN THE CORRIDORS OF TIME

• • • • • • 1

Chapter

II INDIAN EMBROIDERY

• • • • • « 9

Chapter

III KASIDA OF KASHMIR .

• ■ • • •. 15

Chapter

IV PHULKARI OF THE PUNJAB

• • • • ■ • 25

Chapter

V SIND, CUTCH AND KATHIAWAR

• • • ♦ • •

••• 29

Chapter

VI KASUTI OF THE KARNATAK

^ ••• •••

• • • • •« 35

Chapter

VII CHIKANKARI IN UTTAR PRADESH

• •• 42

Chapter

VIII GOLD AND SILVER EMBROIDERY

• ♦ • • • •

• • • • • • 46

Chapter

IX A FEW MISCELLANEOUS TYPES

• • • ... 50

• • • • • •

Chapter

X CONCLUSION

^ ^ ^ A A ^

Appendix

•••

••• ••• •••

• • • •.. 53

I CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO STITCHES

••• ••• 57

Appendix

II bibliography

« A A ^

••• •••

• • • •.. 58

Appendix

III REFERENCES

INDEX

* ••• ••• AAA

••• •••

••• ... 59

•••

•• ••• ««•

’ • • •.. 60

illustrations

Frontispiece : Embroidery Map of India and Pakistan...

1. Flowers and Birds of Kashmir'. 2. A Floral Border ...

1, An Old Kashmir Shawl*. 2. A Table Centre* ...

Plate I
Plate II

Plate III Some Rare Floral Designs in Kashmir Embroidery

• •

• • «

Punjab Phulkari'

A Bagh Design in Punjab Phulkari Work' ...
Chand Bagh^

Plate IV
Plate V
Plate VI

Plate VII Section of a Divan Cover in Sind Embroidery ®

Plate VIII
Plate IX
Plate X
Plate XI
Plate XII
Plate XIII
Plate XIV

9 9 •

* • •

• •

• « •

# 9

9 9 9

A Kathiawar Toran^

Cutch Embroidery .

A Baluchi Embroidered Coat® (with section) ...

A Kathiawar Chokla^ (section) ...

1. A Cutchi Bodice®. 2. A Piece of Cutch Embroidery®.

Kasuti: 1. A \>a\r oi Kunchis*. 2. Kubsa* .

1. Ratha (Chariot)'. 2. Gopuram' (Tower). 3. Hansina Kamala
4. Ani-Ambari' ...

Facing

Page

9 9 9

Plate XV
Plate XVI

Plate XVII

1. Bhashinga'. 2. Kalinga's (Serpent’s) Coil'.

The Lotus Theme in Kasuti Embroidery'. 1. Gubbi Kamala.
2. Yaraleya Kamala'. 3. Tulsi Vrindawan' 4. Shankhma

Kamala'^

More Patterns* 1. Nandi'. 2. Palanquin'. 3 &, 5 'F\or&\

Motifs'. 4. Cradle'

et seq.

9 9 9

Plate XVIII Similarity between Woven and embroidered Designs'
Plate XIX 1. Kflsw/t Workers. 2. Sharagu or Pallav oi a. Sari

Chikankari : A Sari Pallav in Bukhia and Jali Work
Chikankari : A Blouse Collar' ...

Plate XXII Zardozi', Badla and Kamdani'

Plate XXIII

9 9 9

9 9

9 9 9

XXI

9 9 9

9 9

9 9 9

42
44
46

1. A Border in Peacock Motif'. 2. Kinkhab'. 3. A Carpet in
Gold Thread from Hyderabad • ...

• • •

9 9 9

Plate XXIV A Kantha Design from Bengal*...
Plate XXV Travancore Laces' .

• f •

t • •

9 9 9

* Author’* Collection.

Acknowledgements to

• Mr*. Haroj B. B. Yodh.

» Mr*. Ziirtna E. Currimbhoy.

■ Prince of Wales* Mueoum.

* Women’* Training College, Dharwar.

* Mrs. Uraa Qupta.

Chapter I

IN THE CORRIDORS OF TIME

I? MBROIDERY is generally regarded as a homely, unassuming hand-
^ craft, the products of which are no more than ornaments to certain
articles of apparel or household use. It is also looked upon as an occupation
for a woman’s leisure hours. It is, perhaps, for these reasons that it has
not found a high place among the major handcrafts which a country needs
to develop for the advancement of its arts, or for its economic and cultural
progress. It is, however, necessary to emphasize that embroidery is an art
of much higher value, as it furnishes a record of the changing modes of
dress of peoples in the panorama of history, conveying their beliefs and
ideals, their hopes and aspirations, and providing evidence of the contacts
and impacts of different civilisations and cultures.

The fact that embroidery is also an expression of the aesthetic emotions

rendered with the minimum of materials and the maximum of patient labour

in the home determines its intrinsic value, while securing for it a place of

its own among the important crafts. A survey of the embroidery existing

in various regions in India presents the picture of a glamorous past, a vigorous

present, and a promising future, and leaves no doubt that the embroiderer’s

art has a significant part to play in the cultural, social and economic
development of the country.

Various factors contribute to the success and popularity of embroidery.
Climate, natural surroundings, raw materials, and the economic and social
life of a people may appear to have no direct relation to their art, and yet
we find that all these factors have combined to provide the incentive and
inspiration for the embroiderer’s art. Climate, as every one knows, largely
determines the material and shape of clothes, which are designed with an

comfort

Raw materials, economic

conditions and social status are only next in importance. Surroundings of

nj).T.iiT*fi.i npQiThxT c&nHot _ ®

•i? j. -x. ii» • - 111 iiiciii, wxucn

manifests Itself m ornamental dress even among primitive and backward

commumties

times

and

tastes created and cultivated.

imported

When

account?

THE ROMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

and contemporary literature tell us of upheavals of this nature, and it is
interesting to find that the embroiderer’s art supplements the narrative by
visual representations of man’s reactions to his changing surroundings.

It will be seen, in the course of this short study, that the art of
embroidery has acquired a hold on the imagination of the people in different
parts of the world, and can be traced through the ages, flourishing at one
period, decadent at another, according to the fortunes of the country or
civilisation which has nourished it. Whatever be the condition of the art
at a particular period, it can be stated with confidence that it will not die
so long as human sentiment attaches to handwork, as opposed to machine
products, and beauty of form, manifested in colour, or in gold and silver,
continues to please the eye and satisfy the soul. In the Mddle Ages
of Europe, embroidery was regarded as a great art which formed a serious
and worthy branch of painting. Apart from its aesthetic appeal, it has
always had an economic value because of its intimate association with he
life of the common man. Compared with the arts of painting and sculpture,
it is more within the reach of the man or woman of average means, both on
account of its lower cost and the comparatively small demand of training

and skill it makes upon its votaries.

It is an established fact that embroidery originated in the East, and

that the art existed in “ China and Japan, in India, Asia Minor and tobia
for centuries.” There would appear to be no proof that silk existed even
in West Asia, until it was introduced into Iran from China as a result ot
the trade subsisting between these countries. This happened in the time
of the Roman Emperor, Justinian, in the 6th century A.D., and it WM after
this period that silk embroidery became known to the countries of Eu p •
This! home out by the fact that the earliest specimens of embroidery to te
found in European museums belong to the 6th and 7 th centunes A. ■
Since the materials used for embroidery work are by their v«y nature
difficult to preserve for thousands of years, it is possible that earhe

specimens, if any, may have perished.

References in ancient books are not wanting to support the ww

that, even as far back as 1500 years before the Christjan Era,
was known in the East. This theory was advanced after the discovery,
some years ago by Professor Newberry and Mr. Howard Carter, thre^
preciom fragments in the tomb of a Pharaoh of the 18th dyn^ty at Thebes,
which are now in the Cairo Museum.* Homer refers to the embroideryof
garments by Andromache during the siege of T'roy,” and the Roman wn ,
Virgil and Ovid, also refer to needle painting.

IN THE CORRIDORS OF TIME

If we go still further back to pre-historic times, we find references
to embroidery in the Vedas and the great Epics of India. There are also
references in Hebrew literature to embroidery in the description of the
Tabernacle. Most of these ancient descriptions, and the excavations carried
out in the Crimea about seventy years ago lead to the irresistible conclusion
that gold and silver embroidery was the earliest known. The Crimean
excavations brought to light fragments of robes which, with the help of
other articles found simultaneously, were dated as belonging to the 3rd
and 4th centuries b.c. One fragment had a stem of ivy, worked in gold
embroidery, which proves that gold embroidery existed long before silk
embroidery came on the scene. All these articles are today in the Hermitage
Museum at Leningrad. An Asiatic king of the 3rd century b.c. has been
credited with the invention of gold and silver thread, and Pliny, the
Roman historian, refers to this as one of three known types of embroidery.
The Book of Exodus (Old Testament), however, mentions the formula for
the making of gold and silver thread.

Some articles of embroidery belonging to the 5th century a.d.,
excavated from a burial ground in Lower Egypt near Damietta, are now
in the possession of the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. One of the
specimens is a linen hanging, embroidered with wool, in the chain stitch. ^
It is generally believed that the art of embroidery was introduced into
Greece from Babylon and Egypt. The East has, undoubtedly, played a
prominent part in moulding the styles of embroidery in the countries lying
on the Mediterranean coast. The embroidery of Crete, Albania, Sicily,
Spain and Morocco, even that of the Slav countries and Hungary, shows
Oriental influences both in its motifs and in its colours.

Since the earliest Western embroidery of which samples are available
today has been traced to Egyptian origin, one can assert with confidence
t at the Middle East, in any event, has been largely responsible for influencing
Western embroidery. How far the Middle East or the Far East has
influenced India, and whether India has at any time been the original home

middle

of other countries

be answe^ by reader for himself or herself, after reading the romance
rf embroidery told in the foUowing pages. The writer has drawn her own
^hisions, with which the reader may or may not agree, according as they

eany conviction or not. s y

The types

^ - , du wic prcseiic cirne,

groups, each with its special characteristics. In some

THE ROMANCE

OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

countries, like India, Egypt and of stitch

The styles are numerous and var-ed bu ^

The styles are numerous and vanea, uu. ^

support and sustain The classification in appendix I

necklace of beads of different colours.

The classification in appendix i

necklace of beads of ditterent ot the different types

gives a more or less general pictur strange phenomenon of distant

'ver the world. The grouping fveals the strange^p

♦ . _ i?

over trie ^ o .

countries possessing common characteristics.

India figures in almost all the groups “ie^gions within her own

stitches practised by her embroiderers Certain eg

borders are well-known for exhaustiveness for the

classification, as she has no styles in her capacity as a

has studied a number of impor always had a fascination for her,

humble student of this art, w ic ^ ^yt of the large variety that

and has dealt with the mam types y instance,

may be found in a ‘ ,elathig to the embroidery of Assam or

to collect any ‘,"*?To!.ber Provide in spite of several attempts,

details about the North-West the diversity of geographical

features, races, tribes, ohm'‘te. ^ insulted in one

the mingling of the fy^ral strands of^ ^ collection of many types and

:;r"heT‘b" "“o-"

trade, commerce and cultural con^

contiguous regions

Conquests, annexations, tra e, embroidery in this

have been responsible for t of this book. India has always

country, which fornM the >3 ^ foreign cultures which have come

readily assimilated the best e contributed her own share to the

into contaet with her own. ^ . „„ geographical frontiers, as its

orart, no country can claim
a monopoly. . Vaof<»rn and Western countries reveals

A survey of embroidery in emotion and mani-

IN THE COERIDORS OF TIME

the same factors. So do song, drama, dance, poetry and imaginative
literature. Compared to the rest of the arts, embroidery is like a humble
and modest member of a family who brings cheer and happiness into the
homes of the poor. It adds beauty and charm to surroundings which are
otherwise dull and drab, gives a picturesque effect to ordinary wearing
apparel and enters into the very texture of the life of the common man,
be he a farmer, a craftsman or a tradesman, not only by capturing his
imagination but also by providing him with the wherewithal to eke out a
miserable existence. At the same time, it satisfies the vanity of the
sophisticated inmates of palaces and dwellers of cities by enabling them, at
a comparatively lo^v cost, to display pomp in their artificial surroundings.
It is at once the solace of the poor and the delight of the rich.

It may be convenient to deal briefly with the embroidery of China
and Japan and of the countries of Europe and Asia before coming to Indian
embroidery which is the main theme of this book.

As already stated, China may be regarded as the home of silk
embroidery. Although the earliest embroidered work of China is shrouded
in myth, patterned stuffs attributed to the 1st century b.c. when the Elan
Dynasty was in powder, have been unearthed in Chinese Turkestan. The
T’ang period, from 618 to 906 a.d. is noted for the production of artistic
goods, and a large number of textiles of this period survive to the present
day. At or about that time, China was in contact with Iran. The fine
weaving of silk and gold, known as K’o-ssu, had acquired fame in the ''J''’ang
period, and Marco Polo makes mention of the silks and gold fabrics w'hich
China exported to the West in the period of the Yuan Dynasty. Japan
owes the development of her silk industry to China w^hose weavers appear
to have settled down in Japan in the early years of the Christian era. Both
the Chinese and the Japanese embroideries are remarkable for the variety
of design which they display, including symbolic subjects, flowers and birds,
landscapes and diaper patterns. A little colour is often employed to give
a finishing touch to the design. Sometimes a few stitches of embroidery
are used to complete a woven pattern. Such combinations of weaving,
embroidery and painting are not to be foimd in other countries. The satin
stitch has a Chinese origin, as is clear from the derivation of the word “satin”

from “ Zaytoun ” in China.

Among European countries, the Greek islands were the first to be
touched by the magic wand of the embroiderer, who had learnt the art
ton Babylon and Egypt. This is, perhaps, the reason why the embroidery
of the .^Igean Islands had reached a state of develonm^nt

THE KOMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

which put the embroidery of the other European countries into the shade.
The relics now preserved in museums, or in the possession of connoisseurs
of arts, of which photographs are available in books dealing with embroidery,
date from the 5th centurv a.d. The robe whicli is believed to have been
worn by the Roman Emperors during the Holy Roman Empire is to be
found in the Imperial House at Vienna, and those of the Norman invaders
who came after them form part of the “Bayeux Tapestries” in Normardy.
For hundreds of years, during which the Catholic Church dominated the
Western world in its beliefs, thoughts and actions, the art of embroidery was
chiefly restricted in its scope to the ornamentation of episcopal vestments.
Some'of the magnificent ceremonial garments of the period display the best
embroidery, enriched with pearls. Milan was renowned for this art in the

15th century a.d., and maintained its pre-eminence for a considerable time.

Great Britain found a place on the embroidery map a little later,
some time between the tenth and the thirteenth centuries. This is supposed
to have been the glorious period of English embroidery, which received
recognition from the Pope in the thirteenth century, although it had deserved
recognition much earlier. As stated already, embroidery was classed
among the great arts. The Italians welcomed the co-operation of artists
of high repute in the making of embroidery designs. Squarcione of Padua,
founder of a great school of painting, is actually referred to as a “ tailor and
embroiderer.” The museum attached to the Cathedral of Florence contains
a remarkable series of embroideries designed by Antonio Pollaiullo, a
contemporary of Squarcione’s. Vittore Carpaccio, a renowned Venetian
artist, is mentioned in books as a probable designer of embroidery, as a
series of paintings by him representing the life of the Saint Ursula, eontain
embroidered badges and emblems. The high water-mark of embroidery
was reached in France in the 17th century, when the French aristocracy
revelled in extravagant embroidery fashions, which invaded several spheres
and appeared on dress, linen, curtains and other articles of apparel and
household embellishment. Spanish embroidery bears traces of oriental
influence in a more marked degree than the embroidery of any other
European country. This has been attributed to the crossing over of Arab
armies into the Spanish Peninsula as early as the 8th century a.d.

The interlaced stitch, the colour and type of braiding which one
comes across in the embroidery of Spain are met with in the embroidery
existing in the Sind, Cutch and Kathiawar group. History tells us that
Arab raids on the Kathiawar and Gujarat coasts had completed the
conaucst of Sind and by the 9th century they had made settlements on the

IN THE CORRIDORS OF TIME

Cutch coast. Surely, the existence of the same type of stitch and f)ai:tei n

in Spain, on the one hand, and in Sind, on the other, separated by thousands

of miles, but subjected to conquests by Arab armies, is more than a mci e

coincidence. It should be mentioned here that Germany, where various

types of embroidery have been in vogue at different periods, has also the

interlaced stitch. The use of beads and diaper designs was popular in

Germany at one time. The diaper craze reached its peak in the Idth and

14th centuries. Later, in the 14th and 15th centuries white work on linen

became popular. In the 16th century sacred and mythological subjects

attracted the embroiderer, and allegories and romances were depieted on
coverlets and hangings.

Among the less well-known types of embroidery of other European

countries may be mentioned those of Scandinavia, the Netherlands and the

Slav countries. Scandinavian embroidery is geometrical in pattern, intricate

and laboured, reflecting the rigorous conditions of life in those cold regions.

It may be described as typical of the peasant. The Flemish embroiderers

of the 15th century were greatly influenced by the Dutch schools of painting.

The Slav countries produce embroidery which is rich in colour and shows an

outline in dark colour. The cross stitch is popular and the designs are

geometrical. Austria and Hungary have similar motifs and designs for

their embroidery. North Africa may be mentioned as the meeting place of

Eastern and Western influences. With the march of warring Arab armies

from the East in the 7th and 8th eenturies and the influence of Spain

Portugal, Italy and England from the West, this combination of influences
was inevitable.

Before bnngmg this chapter to a close, it is necessary to refer to the
embroidery of two other countries, namely. Turkey and Iran The
embroidery of Turkey appears to have influenced that of many other

today reveal the influence of the cross and the darning stitch

stitch IS also common. Geometrical designs are characteristiry the

teTl^ellSin “ A? ” remarkable

countrit™ Th^r^“ ^ exercised a great influence over neighbouring
Sassanian pIL bet^r t^ ni'h to thf

of Mahom^anism in r mwSf oTthe 7 th “

as a nation were under subjugation, thr ^

THl. ROMANtE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

developed l)v the rulers, and it even inltiieneed the other countries of
Western Asiu. There was an iiurease of artistic activity in the reign of
Shah Ahhas in tin Hlth eenturv. 'I'iie embroidery of Persia in the 16 th
and ITtli -■entnri( s was rich, ehielly on account of tlie gold, silver and silk
einplovfd in the designs. The satin stitch predominates in Pei-sian
embroidery, ami the motifs c'onsist ehiellv ol lea\is and llowcrs. a teature
wliu'h Kashmir, in India, appears to have borrc>^\l■(l. The rtsht work,
which is a kind of ap|)li()ue work, also reappeal's in Kashmir in what is
known as fffihha embroidery, \Nhieh has b<^en deseribetl in detail in a later

chapter.

Chapter II

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

T^HEN did embroidery commence in India, and can it be traced to

^ " pre-historic times, are questions which suggest themselves when one

begins to inquire into the origin of Indian embroidery. Embroidery has

been referred to in the Vedas and in the great epics of India, especially the

Mahabharata. Megasthenes has described the cotton garments of the Indians

as-“worked in gold and ornamented with various atones, . . . also flowered

garments of the finest muslin.”'' It seems likely that in India the art of

embroidery began with gold and silver thread, according to literary and

historical records. Mention of gold cloth or brocade is made in the Yajur

Veda, and it is believed that the art of weaving gold and cotton has existed

in India, ChaldaBa, Ass5n’ia, Babylonia and Phcenicia from the earliest times,

and it was first done in flat strips of gold and then in wire twisted round

thread.* It has not been possible for the archaeologist in this country to

excavate embroidered fabrics, as in Egypt and Chinese Turkestan, which

may be attributed to the fact that the embalming of dead bodies or burial

is almost unknown among the Hindus, existing, as it does, only in certain
sects which came later.

Gupta period, extending over a hundred years from the year

4.E if*1^^ glorious age of Indian culture, judged bv the production of
the best works of Indian art and literature, which indicate what was achieved

y the men of that age. Kalidasa’s descriptions of dress in his dramas and
th^e of Banabhatta, the famous biographer of Harsha, support what has
been stated above. Describing Malati, Banabhatta says, “ She wore a

• j . r iigiiLcr man a snake s

(caiLuaka\ gleamed a petticoat

(emdalaka) of saffron tint and variegated with spots of different colours

the women were dressed in robes which at times bore beautiful patterns

a ihyme woman wearing a dazzling muslin robe embroidered with hundreds

•JW was often de^tL She ^ The white

the air *“ds floated in

.u. .Ud, to ■" ■ ■kf"*

THE ROMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

These descriptions agree in endorsing three theories, namely, that in
Harsha’s time fine textile fabrics existed, that embroidery was known, and
that gold thread work was equally known. ^Netra^ cloth has been described
by some as a fine fabric. According to Cowell it was a fabric of silk and
gold thread. It would appear that products of gold and silver thread were
in vogue before those of silk. Even today, gold, silver and silk fabrics are
deemed to be materials which can be worn on all sacred and auspicious
occasions. In this connection it may be interesting to mention that Pliny
refers to gold thread work as a thing of Asiatic origin. Devardhigani (5th
century a.d.) has described silk manufacture and the different varieties of
silk-worms {kidaya). In the West, too, ecclesiastical vestments w^ere
embroidered in gold and silver, which is regarded as ascribable to oriental
influence. Wace, refers to the three main sources of embroidery in the
Greek islands as “ Oriental, Italian and the old Levantine tradition.”"

The ancient idea of embodying precious metals and gems in fabrics
is something remarkable. Beads and looking glass, as substitutes for
these tokens of wealth and glamour, are more recent innovations suited to

a less prosperous state of society.

There is a prevailing belief among Western writers that the orthodox
Hindu does not appreciate stitched work, and that the art of sewing was
introduced by the Muslims. This is not well-founded, because there are
references in the Hymns of the Rig Veda and the Aithareya Brahmana to
the art of sewing as follows : “With never-breaking needle may she sew her
work, and give a hero son most wealthy, meet for praise.” Again, “ stitch
ye the coats of armour wide and many.” It is also interesting to observe
that in Vedic times the needle was considered an important item in the
lives of the people and that it served as a symbol for joining and for strength.
An invocation in the Taithriya Samhita, especially, emphasises the former:
“ I invoke with a fine eulogy Raka (full moon) who can be easily called.
May she, who is auspicious (or good looking) hear (our invocation) and
understand in her heart (its meaning); may she sew her work with a needle
that is unbreakable; may she bestow on us a son that is worthy and would
possess immense wealth,” while the latter point is brought out clearly m
the following: “ As to the Dhayyas, we sew up with them (every rent in)
the sacrifice, just as we sew up (a rent in) a cloth with a pin that it mig
become mended.”’ Kendrick writes, “Needlework in the most primitive
times was used for joining and for strength, and when these led to a
perception of its ornamental possibilities, the beautiful art of embroidery
came into existence.”* If we accept this statement as correctly describing

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

the origin of embroidery, it follows that Indian embroidery had its origin
in Vedic times.

This is not to say that the Muslims had no share in the development
of the art of embroidery. In fact, the art owes a great deal to the patronage
of the Muslims and also to the artistic talent of Muslim craftsmen for its
enrichment, development and progress. Even to this day, Mahomedan
artisans form a majority of the workers in certain types of embroidery, and
they excel in some others. They also control the commercial side.

The migratory tribes of India have had no small share in contributing
to the growth and expansion of the art of embroidery. Chief among these
are the Lamanis or Banjaras, those of the Western Ghats, the Khasi Hills,
Manipur, and others who used in former times to be classed as criminal
tribes. The work produced by them is often of a high artistic order. The
introduction of beads, shells, mirrors, etc., is to be associated with tribal
embroidery. The attractiveness of bead work can best be appreciated by
those who have had occasion to watch Telugu women labourers engaged in
house-building work, who wear cholis (tight-fitting blouses) made of saffron-
coloured cloth embroidered with beads. There is hardly anything in the
busy life of a city like Bombay more picturesque than the sight of these
dark-brown women, against the background of the sapphire Indian sky,
swinging their shapely arms with rhythmical movements as they pass on
small baskets of red brick or white mortar from one to another, standing on
a ladder or rather swaying about, as if performing an oriental dance. The
coloured cholis with the bead embroidery, emphasizing the contours of their
hthe bodies, combined with their swaying movements and their song,
which helps to lighten their labour, give them the appearance of graceful

QdXLCCrS •

femorowery designs have been adopted in the manufacture
ot textdes The Dacca muslins, the Mnkhabs, Banarasi brocade, Hyderabad

Kannada region, the patolas of Kathiawar, the textiles
0 Onssa and Madura the silks of Madras and Bangalore and the carpets of

KasW and other places may, in a sense, he regarded as further stages in

ae development of embroidery with the help of the loom, which faciUtates
and qmckens production. -- -

distinguish between

u- V i r -xxauxuiucicu ciotn, aitnougfi the origin of both can

hl“nL t'e'“d T T embroiderer. Mention may be made

which *“*1*^”** Rajputana and Kathiawar

show similarity m then* motifs and dMi ornc frk _

12 THE EOMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

proper. The resin prints of gold and silver display the same designs as
those found in gold and silver embroidery.

The economic condition of the artisan who produces these luxury
and artistic articles for the delectation of the richer class is deplorable. He
is hardly able to make both ends meet. Living in a hovel, steeped in misery,
he plies his trade, unconscious of the credit his handwork ultimately brings
to his motherland. As observed by an anonymous writer in the Oudh
Gazette, “ it is only in India that patience, dexterity of manipulation, grace
in designing, trustworthiness in handling gold and precious stones and the
skill which is the result of many years of application, can be bought for

threepence a day.”

The peasant class has contributed the best embroidery. It would
not be untrue to say that embroidery has originated with this class. I he
tracts where embroidery is found in a flourishing condition are largely
agricultural and pastoral, and their inhabitants, by the very nature of their
occupation, are not required to work throughout the year. They utilise
their spare hours by devoting them to the pursuit of the art which, besides
satisfying their urge for artistic expression, brings them a subsidiary income.
In the cities and towns to which some of these peasants have migrated the
art of embroidery is practised as a vocation alongside of other allied hand¬
crafts such as handloom weaving, tie-and-dye work and tapestry.

In trying to classify the different tjqies of embroidery which exist
in India today, one finds that practically all the known types in the rest of
the world appear here in some form or other. This is the result of the
action and interaction of historical, political, economic and social factors.
Each of the succeeding chapters in this book deals with geographical regions
which show similarities of type, and contains a detailed description of the
characteristics of the type or types prevailing in the region.

It is of interest to note that, although the embroidery of a particular
region has certain marked characteristics akin to those of the embroidery
of a foreign country, variations in the application of a well-known technique
produce a distinctive type which falls in a class by itself. This proposition
may be illustrated by quoting the example of the typical embroide^ of
Kashmir. The satin stitch, which Kashmir has evidently borrowed from
China via Iran, has developed on entirely new lines, peculiar to Kwhim^
The darning stitch which produces the wonderful phulkari of the Punjab
has its affinities with the embroidery of Baluchistan and the cross stitch
and the line stitch of the Middle East ahd parts of Europe, but the phvXkan

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

has its own marked individuality which bears little resemblance to that of
Baluchistan or of the other two region {Plate X). The Sind, Cutch and
Kathiawar group, in which the interlaced stitch of Spain and Germany
predominates, takes on an altogether new appearance because of the mirror
work, reminiscent of tribal embroidery, which causes the stitch to recede
into the background. The chikan work of Uttar Pradesh (the United
Provinces) is closely related to the washable linen embroidery of Europe.
The kasuti of Karnatak is very much like the embroidery of the Slav
countries and of Austria, Hungary and Spain, combining, as it does, the
line stitch, the darning stitch and the cross stitch, but it is a highly finished
type of embroidery.

The embroideries just mentioned are some of the outstanding types
to be found in India. There are, however, numerous other types, worked
on leather, velvet, net and silks with material such as wool, silk, beads
and gold or silver thread. At one time even beetles’ wings were used to
give an enamel-like appearance to embroidery.

The gold and silver embroidery on fine cotton fabrics appears to be
the earliest known Indian embroidery. Chikan work on cotton must have
been a later development as a result of trade contacts between Arabia
and Eastern India, perhaps, subsequent to the Muslim invasions.
Fine cotton fabric appears to have existed long before the Christian era.
In the Mahabharata, speaking of the presents brought to Yudhisthira by
feudatory chiefs, the author enumerates the following articles ; “ furs from
the Hindu Kush, woollen shawls of the Abhiras from Gujarat, clothes of the
wool of sheep and goats, and of threads spun by worms, and of plant fibre
(hemp) woven by the tribes of the North-Western Himalayas, of elephant
housings presented by the princes of Eastern Hindustan ; and of pure linen
^uslin), the gift of the people of Ganjam, the Carnatic and Mysore ”®
There is also evidence that in the Buddhist period about 600 b.c. the
principal articles of trade in which merchants dealt included “ fine sorts
ot cloth, and cultery, armour, brocades, embroideries and rugs, perfumes

f tte Buddhist period, mentioned in the Jatakas, are shoes, riehly bought

^MenTfh?" ; ‘™PPings, girths and network of grid

^den doth for state elephants, silk cloth embroidered with gold and the

pmverbiaUy famous doth of Kasi worth ten thousand pieees.-.

some of these ^des were exported to foreign countries
of the country had been met,

It is said

THE ROMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

Like the other fine arts, embroidery reflects the cultural traditions
of the people among whom it takes its birth and develops. In spite of the
diversity of languages, manners and customs which leads a superficial
observer of Indian life to infer that there is no such thing as one Indian
culture, but a haphazard combination of differing regional cultures brought
about by political unity, any one who has made a careful study of the
history of India, the conditions of life of the villager, the farmer, the
town-dweUer, the religious beliefs, superstitions, thoughts, ideals, aspira¬
tions, the family traditions, the moral codes, the art and hterature which
mould the life and influence the conduct of the average citizen of India,
will at once recognise the cultural unity which underlies all these different
aspects of life. The art of embroidery furnishes one more proof of this
prevailing imity. The elephant, the peacock, the lotus and the mango
have provided a source of inspiration to the embroiderer in different times
and climes. The mango design, for instance, is a very popular design and
its variants are to be found in different parts of the country under names
associated with other objects having more or less similar shapes. The
wind-blown cypress which figures in the embroidery of Kashmir suggests a
design resembhng that of the mango, common to Sind, Cutch and Kathiawar.
It appears again in the form of a gulahdan (silver vessel for showering rose¬
water on auspicious occasions) as a motif in gold and silver embroidery*
In the Deccan, and still further south, the pattern assumes the form of si
cashew-nut (godambi). It is also present in chikan and in phulkari work,
although adhering in the latter strictly to the stitch and mode of work.

Chapter III

KASIDA OF KASHMIR

The Background

ASHMIR, the fairyland, the land of turquoise skies, jade-green lakes,
rainbow-tinted, snow-capped mountains, artistic houseboats and
shikaras, beautiful women gorgeously decked with huge silver ornaments
and the home of the artist in silver, ivory and wood, presents a distinctive
feature in the clothing of the people, in keeping with the aesthetic back¬
ground. It is no wonder that Kashmir should produce a type of embroidery
rarely surpassed in its beauty and artistic value. Hand embroidery is
usually considered uneconomical, not being a commodity which can be
produced in large quantities, or which is in demand from all sections of the
people, but in Kashmir this embroidery has grown and developed as a
cottage industry, which today provides a source of livelihood to a vast
number of its inhabitants. Even more remarkable is the fact that it has
secured markets both at home and abroad. In few countries has hand
embroidery developed as it has done in India. In Kashmir, the industry
can be said to be flourishing. The State of Kashmir deserves its full meed

of praise for its wise policy of giving every encouragement to the artist and
the craftsman in his own homeland.

In all types of industry, the more the encouragement the greater
the production and the better the quality of the product. A feeling of

complacency is, however, harmful. More and more facilities should be
made available to the workers, so that they not only get a reasonable return
for their labour but are spurred on to improve the quality of their work
Mother reniarkable fact is that, while embroidery is primarily the domain
of the skilled needle-woman in other parts of the world, Kashmir includes

workers *** workers, and the men actually outnumber the women

relimnn™* Kamatak which reveals the influence of

tteT the housewife,

s^riM i iT j ^""teous gifts. One would be justified in
wealth of Nature s charms which have made visitors descriL Kashmir as

n earthly paradise. Working under the inspiration of their natural
urroundings, the embroiderers of Kashmir have introduced into their
landwork an abundance of motifs of gorgeous colours [Plate I).

The rich blues and purples, the fresh greens, the vital yellows and
he warm reds bespeak the grandeur of Kashmir. Vigne, describing
Kashmir, whites : “ In spring the valley is a mass of flowers, in autumn a
orest of gorgeous tints, in winter a mantle of virgin snow.” Mountstuart
^Iphinstone speaks of it thus : “To an invalid it gives health, to an
irchaeologist it affords ample material for exploration and research, to an
irtist it offers Nature’s loveliest and sublimest sceneries, to scientists it
urnishes many abstruse and still undiscovered problems in geology, botany,
thnology and philology. ...”

The innumerable shades of colours one finds in pieces of Kashmir
mbroidery support the theory that the riot of colours which go to the
naking of the gorgeous sunsets, the azure mountains, the sparkling lakes
md the variegated flowers and birds, have left their indelible mark on the
ninds of the workers. The designs are evenly balanced. With their

graceful stems running in all directions and their slender tapering leaves
filing in the gaps with the perfection of Nature’s own handwork, the floral
notifs rival Nature’s original patterns in all their exuberant beauty. While
lowers, leaves, fruit and birds form the main motifs in the designs of
Kashmir embroidery, animals and human beings have no place in them.

'n designing a motif the artist naturally selects from his own surroundings
i subject which he can present compellingly and attractively, with an eye
;o colour and line. What wonder then that the chenar leaf, the grapes,
he cherries and the plums, the pomegranate, the almond and the apple
)lossoms, the iris, the tulip, the lily, the lotus and the saffron flower should
lave inspired the embroiderers in search of lovely designs ? Among birds,
;he most popular are the parrot, the magpie, the kingfisher, the wood-
)ecker and the canary. Butterfly designs are also to be found, but flower

ind foliage are the dominant motifs. The popularly known shawl pattern
s supposed to have been inspired by the cypress cone, almond or river loop
n Kashmir and dominates most designs in some form or other [Plate II).

Foreign Contcuits

Kashmir and Persian designs bear a close resemblance. Symmetry
n the composition and development of the pattern, elegance and poise, ^ .
L free and facile hand are characteristics of the Persian design,

are to be found in the i^roduets of Kashmir. Traces oj' Chinese art are
also visible. The arts, chief anu)n_i>' them being cmbroidei-y, ai'e s;ii(l io
have been introduced into the State of Kashmir bv Zain-ul-.Abedin Shah

(] !2.‘M47-f A.D.), v’ith the help of experienced artists ijiviied from. Sh rsia,.
It was also lie who encouraged these arts and crafts to de\'eio|) inio eoiiaiiv

industries. Carpet-making in Kashmir, Jiowevei-, never cane- up U
high le\ el of the earj)et iiidustiy of Persia, although cheaper types of carpels
like the- Kaslunir iiamda -Awd gahba luue seeui’ed large markets. At pi'esent.
aeeoiiling t(; Sachidanauda Sinha,‘- the hand-made eaipel indusli'x
is legarded as the largest single industi’y in the State, })!'o\ iding a liwlihood

to twelve ])er cent, of the male population of Srinagar, direetlv oi- indireetb .

♦ «

The incursions of foreign ti-ade have had their repercussions on ihese
industries which, at one time, were fast deterioratino-. Kaslnuiri desi(*ns
have been copied on Czechoslovakian shawls, which have often been passed

I original Kashmir embi'oideiw' has held its

groinui against these inenrsions and piracies. Attempts to introduce
foreign designs into Kashmir were made onee or twice, but the\- met with

the disapprinai oi the public. The distinctiveness of tlu' original ernbi’oideiw
has. Iherefoi'c. l)cen largely maintained to this day.

Some toreign fii'ins have taken full advantage of these cottage

industries and have been doing I'oaring busiiu'ss abroad. It may be that

die Indian workman lias thus been exploited for the benefit of the foreigner.

but 1 1 must be eoneeded that such business eontaets liave also lieljicA to

kec]) the workman busy and thus eneom'aged him to carry on even during

the bienk N’cars of the AVai-. It is understood that one or two firms export

tai)(-lry or upholstery designs which they have introduced in Kashmii'

|vith the help of Swedish designers. These articles, however, are not to
be seen in the Indian market.

lothing.

K as Id a

Kasluiui' kurnh is w.,i-|,l-fani<ms. It is wrougl.t on «iri„„s knuls „l'

"ns \

I lie cloth used is cither silk or wool, the colours are rich, the
aried and the execution exquisite and elaborate. Kasida goods
■omniand a ready market in India, being within the reach of the middh'
asses and suited to the tropical climate and the mode of dress of thc^

)e pie. I hey include shawls, .mris, other dress material, ehildrenks clothes
.slnon covers, handkerchiefs, linen, in short, articles which provide scope'
designs of sprays, bunches of fruit and birds of brilliant plumage.

The Kashmir patterns display all the eharni of freehand drawing and
omposition {Plate II 2). The stitches are simple enough and the beauty lies
rimarily in the pattern and in its execution. It is worthy of notice that
he basic kasida stitches have remained intact, and have not been superseded
ither by the machine stitch or by the warp and weft of the loom, even
rhen the designs have been transferred to textiles. This is due to the
ature of the stitch, which can be plied only by a deft manipulation of the
eedle. The three main stitches in kasida embroidery are the satin, the
tern and the chain stitches, while the herring-bone and the darning stitch
re also employed occasionally. It is a well-known fact that the Indian
onsumer sets great store by embroidery which displays the same fineness
f work on both sides of the cloth, so as to make the seamy side undistin-
uishable from the right side. The explanation that occurs to the
/riter is that articles of clothing, such as shawls and saris, which derive their
racefulness from the apparent casualness with which the wearer arranges
he folds, may not invariably present the right side of the cloth to the
nlooker. The finest kasida, particularly, on shawls and saris, has no
irrong side, as that expression is commonly understood. Such fineness of
(Tork is not aimed at in embroidered goods, which are produced in large
[uantities for sale at a cheaper price; neither is it deemed necessary for
ut or closely fitting garments, obviously because only the outer side of

hese garments is visible.

Kasida work is variously classified, and special names are given to
[ifferent types. The word, kasida, is the general term used to describe
everal varieties, like rafugari, zalak dozi, vata-chikan, doria and talaikar.
Casida flourishes principally in Srinagar and some of the surrounding towns.
?he media employed are silk and wool for both of which Kashmir is famous.
?he yarn used is either indigenous or imported from Yarkand.

Kasida Workers

The plight of the kasida worker is pitiable. His living is cheap, his
Iress poor and tattered, his diet and health leaving much to be desired.
Teanliness does not worry him. The average worker has a family of five
lependants to feed and clothe. In spite of poverty and the slenderness of
esources, the workers have by their labour and skill built up a vast cottage
ndustry, which has become famous throughout the world.
eside for the most part within the municipal limits of i
►f thei^i are also to be found in Shalimar, Vicharnag,

^owshera, Anantnag and Zimnal,

/ »

• i .

II (ihir ( iiiit'c

l^lal, if

.* / #.*,S

Some rare floral designs in
Kashmir Embroidery

e III

KASIDA OF KASHMIR

The average daily income of a worker varies with the type of work,

ranging from eight annas to four rupees. The approximate number of

workers in the industry, including carpet-making, is in the neighbourhood

of 55,000, by far the largest number being employed in the making of namda

carpets with embroidery on it. The next largest number is the section

which produces the gabba carpet. Comparatively speaking, the number of

persons employed in kasida work on various types of cloth is smaller.

Wearing apparel needs a finer type of material, and work requiring more

time and labour. The result is that kasida work is more expensive than

the coarser kinds of embroidery. Carpet and rug making are the more

lucrative of the occupations. The reasons for this fact are the larger and

quicker outturn and the higher wage. The sales of the articles and their

export depend on their nature. For example, saris, shawls and children’s

garments have a large demand in India, while carpets and rugs have both a

domestic and foreign market, the latter consuming a proportionately larger

quantity. The demand for the finer type of kasida work is naturally more

restricted on account of its cost, but it is sufficient to keep the cottage
industry alive and active.

The Namda

The namda, being an important branch of the kasida industry of

Kashmir, on account of its wide popularity in local and foreign markets,

has p-eat economic potentialities for Kashmir. During recent years'

especially between 1938 and 1942, Srinagar exported to the United States

of America alone namdas (rugs) of the value of six to seven lakhs of rupees

annually. It is possible for a worker to prepare two namdas a day with the

assistance of three other persons. The three workers thus engaged in the

process of manufacture are the thrasher, the presser and, finally, the person

who helps in the sizing of the namda, which is a kind of felt, consisting of
a mixture of wool and cotton pressed into shape.

Then comes the turn of the embroiderers, who work in groups of
five to ten workers. They live in the villages as well as in the cities and
form a total population of about six thousand. The namda industry has
been a boon to the poorer classes of Kashmir. It has helped them to make

diffi T ’f" door in the more

average worker who

prepares the namda a return r»f Rc o i

daily return of Re. 1-8.

THE ROMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

The namda not being of a fine quality, the embroiderer does not require
much preliminary training. The stitch is of the large chain variety.
Frequently, little boys are employed on this kind of work. The design is
stereotyped, and although it has been in existence for nearly twenty years, it
is still very popular, and the demand has continued in spite of deterioration
in quality. It is cm’ious that a country like the United States of America,
which is ever on the “ new look,” should consume the larger portion of the
stock produced. Improvement in quality and design is certain to give
greater scope to the export of this article, and ultimately to benefit the
worker individually and the country as a whole.

The Kashmir Branch of the All-India Spinners’ Association which
has been assisting namda workers for well over fifteen years now has been
attempting to produce better designs with the help of an expert designer,
and the demand for the products of their organisation is large.

Gabba

The gabba industry comes next only to the namda industry in
Kashmir. Anantnag, situated at a distance of about 36 miles from Srinagar,
is a village known for its gabba embroidery. This can be described as an
industry connected with waste products, as it uses up waste wool and
tattered shawls. Old articles are picked up, thrashed and dyed for use as

material for gabba embroidery.

Gabba is a kind of appliqu^ work for which tattered woollens come in
handy and can be used with advantage to present the most lovely designs.
The material is sewn on to the base with the chain stitch, so as to make
the rug appear almost like a quilt. Qfibba rugs^ok very attractive in their
dark and sombre colours, relieved by'bright fl^es. The effect of the rich
blending of colours is to give the old material a new appearance.

The gabba serves as a bedding rug. There is no such thing as a fixed
pattern or design of embroidery as tattered pieces are used, and the skill
consists in showing them off to the best advantage. The finished product,
however, is attractive, cheap for the price and suitable for use as divan-
spreads and bedding. Although it is said that this industry is decaymg,
there are more than 8,000 workers in Anantnag who earn their livelihoou

by this kind of work. .

The daily wages of these workers range from a rupee to a
a quarter. The gabba industry gives employment to a ’ ““

women than any of the other allied industries, but the pro

KASIDA OF KASHMIR

to men in the industry is small. Again, it is more of a home than a cottage
industry. From the purely economic standpoint this industry is valuable
because it makes profitable use of waste articles. As such, it deserves
every encouragement to develop and expand.

Rafugari

Another type of embroidery extant in Kashmir is rafugari, Avhieh
literally means “ darning.” It is usually worked on scarves and shawls.
Pattoos, or shawls of a smaller size, i.e., three yards long and a yard and a
half wide, provide a very suitable base for rafugari. The name rafugari
is derived from the stitch. Pattoos are cheap as well as expensive. The
cheaper fabric used to be imported from Germany in times past and from
Japan in more recent years. The designs of rafugari shawls are simple
and yet attractive. The majority of the workers belong to the agriculturist
class and are, therefore, to be found living outside the municipal limits.
The work is a sort of stand-by to them in the bleak winter, although it hardly
brings them an income of more than twelve annas a day.

High class rafugari is worked with the same type of material as that

used for the base, the interweaving producing a beautiful texture in the

fabric. Kashmii pashmina, taffeta, shatush and alwan are the materials

largely used for this class of work. Pashmina shawls are of the best quality.

The pashm or wool is obtained from the hair of the ibex and can be woven
into the softest of woollen fabrics.

A high class shawl is expected to have the design worked evenly on
both sides, and may take about a couple of months to complete. Naturally
the price of the article soars up, and it becomes a fancy article fetching a
fabulous price, depending on the nature and variety of the design. The
earnmgs of a shawl worker may be anywhere between a rupee and two rupees
a day. There are not many shawl workers in the towns, but they are very
retoed, and their work is so good that it has attracted the patronage of the
^er ctees in the bigger towns and cities. The price of Iwl

rft TsT “ **“"*«d and a thousand rupees, according

as It IS less or more artistic {Plate II, 1). ^

Amritsar

Kashmir

industrv THp # fu- • T pasnmina shawl

^ a severe famine overtook

Kashimr. m or ahonf fiio tooo . i uverrook

rr^^\ _• • , - ^ Ot laxgc uumoi]

hmir migrated to the South and settled down

The

THE ROMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

emigrants included a number of pashiiiifid shawl woikeis who made their
homes in Amritsar and established an industry there. The manufacture of
pashmina work was introduced about the year 1818, when Ranjit Singh
began to extend his rule over the whole of the Punjab. When the manu¬
facture was first instituted, there were about 300 shops in Amritsar. On the
eve of the annexation of the Punjab by the British, there was a tremendous
increase in the number of these shops, and the annual outturn of pashmina
shawls was of the value of about four lakhs of rupees, or more than sixteen

lakhs at the present purchase value of the rupee.* =

The Amritsar shawls are of a quality inferior to that of the Kashmii

product, which is still the best of its kind on account of the special care

taken in the selection of the wool and the anxiety shown by the manufacturer

to avoid adulteration of the material, at all costs. The Amritsar shawls,

on the other hand, are made of wool which is adulterated by the mixture

of an inferior type of wool imported from the province of Kirman, via

Kabul, and known to the trade as wn ^

The pattern on some Kashmir shawls is produced on the loom itself,
the border being sewn on later. The workmen learn the process of manu¬
facture from a very tender age, almost from their childhood. According
to the system prevailing in the industry, children are apprenticed to master
workmen, who make payments for their services to their guardians. The
payment is made in advance, and if the apprentice leaves his employe!
LLe his advances are worked off, the next employer has to compensate
the first employer for the balance of the agreed period of appienticeship.

In the treaty of 1846 between the Kashmir Durbar and the iritis
Government it was arranged that shawls and rumals worth Rs. 8^00 should
be sent to the British sovereign. This arrangement was ^

Ste a? such arrangement exists today between the State of Kashmir
and the Indian Union as a result of the accession.

The Chain Stitch Rug

The chain stitch rug is of recent date and on “"f j,*!
tt®;esembL°tn Jlu ^pet and can be

the base is of hessian cloth, and coarse woo! is used for the Horai m
designs.

KASIDA OF KASHMIK

2;j

The chain stitch is used for the making of a large number of
miscellaneous articles such as bags, screens and cushion covers, which aie
exported in large quantities to foreign countries where they are j)opular on
account of their attractiveness, low price and usefulness, especially in the
colder climates. At the same time, the demand for them in India is
comparatively negligible, mainly because hessian cloth is considered to be of
low quality. The products today show a marked deviation from the
original type in design, colour and stitch as a result of foreign inlluenee.
This deviation is conspicuous in those embroidered articles which are so
crowded with large colourful motifs that the base of hessian is scarcely
visible. The workers, who are restricted to Srinagar, and are not at all
numerous, get a fair return for their labour, earning from Rs. 2 to Rs.
per day on an average.

Embroidery on Cotton and Silk Cloth

Embroidery on wearing apparel, whether of cotton or of silk, is in
continuous demand, and has vast possibilities. The embroiderer is called
upon to be alert to adapt himself to fast changing fashions by inventing new
designs. That he has answered this call successfully is clear from the
variety and excellence of the embroidered articles of clothing, from babies’
clothes to saris and dressing gowns, that keep flooding the market. In
addition to wearing apparel, he has been producing a number of articles
required for decorating a modern house, such as household linen, cushion
covers, table and tea mats.

Cotton, and even silk, embroidery is not so expensive as to be

beyond the reach of the middle class, who are by far the largest class of

consumers in the country. The material used is mostly Indian, although

in the old days Japanese silk and yarn were made use of. The fact that

the best finished silks are purely indigenous goes a long way in securing a
good market for them in India.

Kasida workers reside mostly in Srinagar. With an average family
income of a rupee to a rupee and a half a day, they live in extreme poverty,
and yet are able to produce the loveliest of things, thus disproving the
generally accepted theory that those who have to struggle in order to secure a
square meal cannot think of art. India is a land where the best workmanship
is produced, not in the most up-to-date and best equipped factories, but in the
humble dwellings of poverty-stricken and under-fed artisans. One possible

explanation of this nhenomenon IS "hllP.'l". 4-1 _

THE ROMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

nsolation and happiness in the creation of artistic objects, without the
pectation of an adequate reward in the shape of profits, because the
eative urge which finds its satisfaction in self-expression, is stronger in
em than the desire for material comfort. This urge owes its existence

id vigour to the beautiful surroundings
em, and which act as a constant source

with which Nature has provided
of inspiration to them.

Chapter IV

PHU LKARI OF THE PUNJAB

'T^HE Punjab is noted for the type of embroidery which bears the name,

^ phulkarL The origin of phulkari is associated with the brave and

industrious Jats who occupy the districts of South-East Punjab and parts

of the adjoining areas of the United Provinces. Numerically the strongest

clan in the South-East of the Punjab, they lead a simple and quiet rustic

life, with agriculture as their chief occupation. In the Baluchi language

the word “Jat” means camel-man. The Jats appear to have carried the

art of phulkari embroidery with them wherever they went. Today, however,

phulkari work is better known as typical of the Punjab, rather than of the

Jat tribe. Traces of the phulkari are also to be found in Rajasthan which

includes Jats among its population. The Jaipur Museum has some good

samples of phulkari work. When the writer paid a visit to the museum in

October 1945, she was interested to find that some of the designs were

similar to kasuti designs of the Karnatak. This is a strange phenomenon

in view of the distance between the Punjab and the Karnatak. It is quite

possible that some migratory tribes may have carried the designs to and

fro. On the other hand, the similarity may just be nothing more than an
inexplicable coincidence.

The p/iM?A:an, in the words of Mrs. F. A. Steele,is “ a work of faith,
savouring somewhat of sowing seed in the red-brown soil. . . .Its beauty is
to be manifested later on, with the rare holiday-making, when the worker
will, perhaps, for the first time, unfold the veil, to see and wear the fruits of
her labours.” It is an important part of the trousseau of the Sikh and the
Hindu bride, which is worn by the bride at the phera ceremony, that is, when
the bride and the bridegroom change places. According to an ancient tradition
which IS observed to this day, the moment a daughter is born in the family
the mother conceives the idea of embroidering a phulkari, to be presented to
the daughter at the time of her wedding, and thenceforth she begins to
translate the idea into action, and keeps working at the phulkari, regardless
ot the time, the energy and the care she has to contribute, year in year out
to make the prospective wedding-gift a genuine piece of art, which will be
an embodiment of maternal love, pride, care and devotion.

hP »« ® phulkari is not to

be measured by its market-price as a work of art, havtog regard to the

THE ROMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

material, labour and skill which have contributed to its making, but by the
filial tenderness, affection and gratitude which are the least return she can
make for the best of good wishes and the most affectionate of thoughts for
her happiness and prosperity that have been literally woven into the
texture of the cloth with each single stitch that has helped to complete the
design. She cherishes this part of her trousseau more than any other
because it will not only protect her loveliness from the cold blasts of winter
and the scorching rays of the summer sun, but serve as a constant reminder
of motherly solicitude.

The base of phulkari embroidery is coarse khaddar-like cloth, of red
or blue colom*, and the motifs of the designs are floral, as the name itself
implies. The most important centre of phulkari embroidery is Rohtak,
although workers are not wanting in Hissar, Gurgaon and Karnal, The
industry is very popular in the South-Eastern districts of the Punjab, and
Lahore, before the partition of the Punjab, was a well-known mart for
phulkari chaddars, produced elsewhere. The phulkari pattern is suitable
for large surfaces, as the smallest design covers a couple of inches {Plate IV),
In practice, the designs are numerous and varied, although to the casual
observer they appear almost identical on account of the close and substantial
darning stitches. The large motifs are especially appropriate to chaddars
and veils for the head, which display a variety of geometrical patterns.

The design is worked out on the reverse side of the cloth with strands
of untwisted silk, which give it an effect of tapestry with a silken sheen.
The base is fully covered by the embroidery in the best phulkari work, so
that it becomes difficult to distinguish the fabric from the embroidery.
In other words, the merger of the one with the other is so complete that, in
the language of Mrs. Steele, the embroidery “ ceases to be an adjunct and

becomes the cloth itself ” {Plate V).

Although the darning stitch and geometrical patterns are inseparable

from phulkari embroidery, the variety of the designs one comes across is
remarkable and makes one wonder how the illiterate peasant women who
are engaged in this industry can produce the most complicated of patterns
with a loveliness and charm all their own. There is no conscious effort
to relieve monotony, and yet the eye is soothed by the harmonious blending
of the outlines of flowers and leaves, and the intricate borders. It is
surprising that the weaver has not encroached upon phulkari designs. The
textile worker has copied some of the phulkari designs for making his borders,
but he cannot carry his imitation very far, since the width of such borders is

limited to a few inches.

Punjab Phulkari

Pla^

A Bagh design in Punjab Phulkari work

Pla

PHULKARI OF THE PUNJAB

Yellow, white, green and red are the four eoloLU-s invariublv prcfeiied
in selecting- silk floss fox phulkari work, although the shades of any particular
colour used are not always the same. When one finds other colours, such
as blue or purple, introduced into phulkari work, one may feel sure that
the article is not genuine. Attempts on the part of enterpiising business¬
men, both Indian and foreign, to produce cheaper or imitation designs of
phulkari work have resulted in harm to the original industry, aiid in the
degradation of public taste. The beauty and workmanship ^vhieh
characterise all genuine phulkari work can never be rix^allerl bv the cheap

imitations put on the market. A discerning public will refuse to touch an\'
but the genuine article.

Other Varieiicft

In addition to the type of embroidery which is popularly known as

phulkari, and which is by far the most important, there are two other

varieties, known as bagh or garden and chobe which, as its name implies

is used for embroidering the edges of the cloth to produce border-like effects’

The is more elaborate and picturesque. It has several varieties known

different names, such as Shalimar Bagh, Kakri Bagh, Mircha Bagh and

Dhuma Bagh, each name being derived from the motifs, and the motifs

being suggested by objects with which the embroiderers are familiar The

motifs are spread out and cover the base. Phulkari work is made up of

honzontal, diagonal and vertical stitches producing geometrical patterns

vaiious shapes and sizes. The interesting floral motifs produced in this
simple way make the work attractive {Plate VI).

difflcultC*" tT 'ind the art is acquired with

■ j' „ different/ormnlos for the various patterns and these

are handed from mother to daughter and from friend to friend

While dealing with the phulkari work of the Punjab, it is neeessarv

BaChrit^ThTl dEast a„7 I^f

plendid article on “ Phulkari Work ir the Ln^b Sh " ^

keen desire that the beauty of phulkari should he ^7’ i

IP..V.I p.,. .1 .p, ,pV

vords : “ To those who have seen the stalwart young Jatni of twenty, still
unmarried, coming home from her father’s field with a swing of russet and
mid draperies matching the millet sheaf on her head, it will be a shock to
;hink of her in white calico arabesqued in aniline dyes. She adds that,
mce buyers of imitations of phulkari work begin to think that no one will
be able to distinguish them from the genuine stuff when “ draped at the
top of a door with a Japanese fan and a peacock’s feather,” the phulkari

art will be forgotten.

In the good old days, when things were cheap, the custom was to
pay the worker an amount equal to the price of the silk required for the
work. The cost of the cloth, dyeing, etc., would of course be extras. An
ordinary bagh design would require about ten rupees’ worth of silk.
Mrs. Steele’s fears have proved to be only too true, and the imitations that
are flooding the market have brought about deterioration in the art of the
phulkari embroiderer. Economic causes have contributed to the degeneration
of the art and the tendency has been to sacrifice quality to quantity. It is
UP to those who want to encourage the embroiderer’s art and who can afford
the cost of hand-embroidered quality products to discourage pinchbeck
patterns. Amritsar has pushed the phulkari industry a great deal. The
district of Hissar was once noted for its phulkari workers m wool. Now it is
well known for the excellence of phulkari work in silk on a cotton base.
As far back as 1882, attempts were made to secure foreign markets for
tluLri work, and a steady demand prevailed. With quicker transport
Ind communications and the growing interest and trade in artistic products
of different parts of the world, both on account of their economic potentialities
and of their cultural value, the Indian Government should leave no stone
unturned to revive and stimulate the phulkari industry.

ttr

r.'

section of if (livun anwr in Sind Embroidery

late V/l

Chapter V

SIND, CUTCH AND KATHIAWAR

'pHE elaborate and gorgeous embroidery of Sind, Cutch and Kc^^h-
m spite of its distinct pastoral origin and Lon! f • pageantry,

the milkmaid nor the cow is included aroth! motifr'’

West. All the three regions have nassed 5k “d Baluchistan in the
have left their impress on their social as wel/55^h <=banges which

Nevertheless, there are certain common f conditions,

estabhsh a close affinity. The embroider ’ ™>fy‘ng> factors which

ow study. In the past, fs in^^he present IhfP'"'P®^'= of

culture have been able to withstand t ^"oighbours, but art and

as embroidery is concerned. euirent of politics, at least so far

and hte'L^Sd'Jr" d Sind, Cutch

-^er the impact of inv^Sl:'

completed the conquest of K ^athiLr had

tulers of Ahmedabad, although it conto»5d f ^^jugated by the

^ , Muslim culture has had a 5 Islam

®=^s ~ r

^ present day bears

THE ROMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

distinct traces of Arab, Turkish and Persian influences. At the same time,
it must be observed that tribal and local influences have been responsible
for the dominating characteristics of each distinctive type.

Bounded on the North and on the East by the Punjab, on the West
by Baluchistan, and on the South by Cutch, Sind has naturally been subject
to the influence, cultural, social and economic of all these regions. The
darning stitch of the phulkari of the Punjab, common to the embroidery of
the Punjab, Baluchistan and the Middle East, the interlaced and chain
stitches of Cutch, and the small mirrors interspersed in the designs have
combined to produce a unique type of embroidery. In some of the work
produced in Northern Sind, i.e., in Khairpur and Mirpurkhas one finds
another stitch resembling the button-hole stitch used for einbroidering
foliage. This stitch brings out the leaves and stalks m bold relief. It is
also occasionally used for the flowers. Its effect, on the whole, is to make

the embroidery look heavily laden and rieh {Plate VII).

The heavy and closely worked embroidery is popular m Shikarpur

Khairpur and Mirpurkhas. That of Mirpurkhas, ^ ?

the Mirs or Baluehi chiefs, has a distinctive style. It is said that the ru
of the Mirs had the merit of strength, and in private life they kept up the
simplicity of their race, although they had a most gratifying taste in dress

There is Lie eolour in the embroidery of lower Smd, wh.eh

indieates the influence of both Cutch and Kathiawar. , ^

Before the partition, some technical schools for the teaching

embroiS were esLblished in Sind, especially in Khairpur and a reg^

of study was prescribed. The Sind Gazetteer.^’ graphically describes
•1 f Inwest class in one of these schools, sitting
the pupi s o tortuously twisting, stretching and bending back

LTnLs rf L St hLd with the left until they have reduced them o
the g p ^Yie next higher class a coarse cloth

the condition n owl with a handle were put into the hands of

and a needle resembling a j fUp ninth When they reached

the children so that they might learn ^ they worked

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SIND, CUTCH AND KATHIAWAR

Cutch Work

Any piece of embroidery which has interspersed mirrors and discloses
the interlaced stitch is popularly known as Cutch or Cutchi embroidery,
because the uninitiated person generally associates such embroidery with
these two features. Genuine Cutch embroidery, however, has the chain stitch
as its basic stitch. The mirrors and the interlaced stitch may be accessory
features, but are not essential.

In Cutch itself the embroidery is known as kanbi embroidery, as it is

mostly made by kanbis (cultivators) and ahirs (cowherds). The life of these

kanbis and ahirs is very simple. They are thrifty and industrious,

and utilise their leisure in this kind of work, which brings them

an income of six to twelve annas a day, the wage depending on the

piece that is completed. Most Hindu women know this art and they work

at the embroidery either in their own little cottages or by forming them¬
selves into groups. ®

The kanbis are to be found in the east and in the west of Cutch
They are farmers, known for their patient work. The ahirs are a pastoral
tabe which b beheved to have migrated from Mathura along with Sri
Krishna to Gimar m Kathiawar, in the first instance, and thereafter to
have settled down in Cutch. ■ • The ahirs are to be found mostly in the

"s to have been derived

irom abUra, the Sanskrit word for milkman. The West coast of Gujarat

and ftose of Smd are also known for their skill in embroidery.

The nature of the articles produced is proof of the origin to which the
embroidery can be traced. The trappings oil cattle, the heavily frilled and
embroidered skirts and the profusely decorated ohoUs (bWs of the

ttr ;f~’ r ::^ranr l"i

wC: ‘ onrs h“p;7“tg;^t‘^Lrr

differen?Mnd“ ThatTb'*""“ ” ‘“flounce of an entirely

a source of inspiration to*'the*'«r'*lf pageantry of kings and courts has been

Cutch work“Ktife cowt J to tone

parrots which are the accessories P®“°‘=hs and

appear that the sele.ion SX: -- alTS

THE EOMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

The

demonstrating their loyalty, respect and affection for the ruling dynasty.
Perhaps their loyalty was occasionally rewarded by the patronage of some
rulers who had a better developed aesthetic sense than others. With the
changes in the political scene that are following one another with
kaleidoscopic rapidity, and the disappearance of the princely order m our
country, the futm’e for these types of designs is not at all promising, but
they will, nevertheless, possess an abiding historical and cultural value in
the eyes of the student of the history of Indian civilisation. It would be a
pity if for lack of princely patronage the workers ceased to produce them.

Original Cutch work is different from that of Sind and Kathiawar,
in which the chain stitch and motifs associated with royalty are less
prominent and sometimes not to be found at all. The Cutch embroi erer
uses a hook like a crochet needle to facilitate and speed the work,
thread is introduced from beneath the fabric and the hook is used to probe
the fabric which is kept taut by means of a wooden frame. The designs
are large and flat, and sometimes mirrors are interspersed to add to them a
touch of glamour. The outlines of borders are sometimes embroidered
with the laid stitch or couching, as it is called, or with the herring-bone stitch.
Like the embroidery of Mirpurkhas, Cutch embroidery is subdued m coloui,
and neat and imposing in execution. Another characteristic of the
embroidery of Cutch, which is to a certain extent common to that ot
Kathiawar, is the gradual introduction of coloured thread, especia y m i
chain stitch work to indicate the veins, the stems and the various tints i
the motifs, while preserving the flat and bold decorative effeet
It may be mentioned in passing that Cutch has a tie and dye bandm
industry which has adopted some of the embroidery designs. A type

raised printing in many colours is also to be met with m Cutch.

It is believed that the mochees (shoemakers) of Cutch learnt the ar

of embroidery, about 820 years ago, from a Mussalman fahr who is said to
have come from Sind. In those days the rulers of Cuteh \

Z If ackn^ledgement of tl suzerainty of the Muslim -lers onhe
adjacent States who were attempting to subjugate Cutch from time

Kathiawar Work

The embroidery of Kathiawar has mucli in common with that of

Cutch Ind std. wL we talk of the art of Kathiaw^

coniures up the picture of the lithe Gopi (milkmaid), dander

ghagra (skirt), her tight-fitting choli (blouse), her odhni, veiling e

// Bdlurlii I'inhroideird coat

SIND, CUTCH AND KATHIAWAR

grace, anklet bells of silver beating time to the sweet melodies of Lord
Krishna’s flute, adroitly balancing the pitcher of milk on her head as she
moves in the direction of the Divine Lover with the swaying, rhythmical
motion of a born garha dancer.

The Kathiawar embroiderer is lavish in decorating the ghagra and
the choli, and the little mirrors which are prominent features of the
embroidery glisten from all angles. It is gaudy in the extreme, but does
not on that account cease to be enchanting. One could very well say that
it dazzles more but pleases none the less. One of the peculiarities of
Kathiawar work is that the base is sometimes composed of a combination
of strips of materials sewn together to form panels. Cutch embroidery has
had a greater influence on the work of Kathiawar than that of either the
Punjab or Sind. We meet with the darning, the herring-bone, the interlaced
and the chain stitches. The darning stitch can be said almost to take the
place of the satin stitch in elongated strokes {Plate VIII).

Kathiawar embroidery generally consists of articles like natis, choklas,
torans and ghagras. The nati is a child’s head-dress ending in a square flap
at the back. The Jat sentiment finds an echo in the Kathiawar custom of
tying up the bride s trousseau in one or two square, embroidered pieces,
{Plate XI), which the bride uses afterwards as decorative pieces for the walls
of her bedroom. The torans are very popular inasmuch as they are supposed
to beckon members of the family and visitors with a warm welcome to the
faimly hearth. The toran consists of a long embroidered strip, of the
width of a doorway, with embroidered flaps or bits of patterned cloth
decorating the lower edges of the pelmet. The ghagras, too, have such
strips sewn on to them as frills to enable the skirt to hang in folds. Trappings
on cattle are also profusely embroidered. The darning stitch of the phulkari
appears to have travelled south and become transformed into the satin

i, “f an inch with a single stroke, it

of squares. Both Kathiawar and Cutch embroidery look very cffcftive on
satin material. In all pieces of Kathiawar embroidery it is usual to lelve a
smdl comer unfinished. The superstition or sentiment underlying this

curious practice U worth exploring. uaueriymg tnis

Conclusion

Cnrci, n i“s*>flcation for grouping together the embroidery of Sind
thmi n'tu wdl have become clear to the reader who has gone

mm to aU the three types of embroidery. Unlike the kasida of

THE ROMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

Kaslimir or the kasuti of the Karnatak, they do not give expression to
emotions evoked by the beauty of Nature’s handwork or to the spiritual
urge of the artist to reproduce objects of beauty associated with the
traditions of religion. They are, however, characterised by the spontaneity
and rhythm connected with folk art, and in their own way contribute to
the glorification of God and Nature by awakening a sense of wonder in the
human mind at the things of beauty which have been conceived and
executed by men and women so that they may remain a joy for ever to
those who create them as well as to those for whom they are intended.

The idea of decorating dress fabric with mirrors is unique. When
mention was first made in Court circles in England that the Duchess of
Windsor wore a dress of glass fabric, it was commented on as unique. In
more recent years glass fabrics and plastic products have become popular,
but that the idea of decorating embroidered articles of dress with glistening
mirrors was conceived by such simple folk as the cowherds and farmers of
Cutch and Kathiawar is something which cannot fail to excite wonder and
admiration. Another equally remarkable achievement in which India can
take a legitimate pride is the incorporation of precious metals like gold and
silver into silk and cotton fabrics in the shape of gold and silver embroidery.

It is interesting to note that the interlaced stitch, common to the
embroidery of Sind and Kathiawar, and employed in so-called Cutch work
is also to be found in Spanish and German embroidery. The coincidence is

curious and is worth investigation.

The future of Sind embroidery is one of the many problems created
by the partition of India. There is no need, however, to be unduly
pessimistic, since the art of embroidery has had a charmed life in the cultural
history of our country. The vast displaced population that has moved
into the Indian Union from Sind and from the West Punjab, particularly
the women, will not allow the art to languish and die, as it can provide a useful
occupation to a large number. It is inevitable that in its new environment
the embroidery will undergo changes dictated by the tastes and fashions
prevailing in the areas to whieh the displaced persons have migrated. Such
changes are already visible in the work which is being done by the women in
the refugee camps at Delhi and at Bombay, Kalyan and other places in the
State of Bombay. New designs and better finish will become necessary for
creating a steady market for embroidered articles in urban areas. The
centre of interest will of necessity shift from the simple village belle to the
sophisticated modern girl, living in the cities and towns, and from the
picturesque scene of rural India to the drab life of the modern Indian city.

1. A Cutchi bodice

'' 4 > ''■■T

• <♦•• _> •. * • •

» m*. ■

#'0t ■

2. A piece of Catch embroidery

late XII

Chapter VI

KASUTI OF THE KARNATAK

J^ASVTI IS the name of the type of embroidery for which the Karnatak
districts of the State of Bombay are famous. In these districts

the Ph I t ^ 'rr culture of the once glorious kingdoms of

of the cave temples of Bad^i which, in a flash, portray a civilisation wLrein
istic imagmation, emotion and achievement rose to great heights. These
artists have left no records to bear witness to the petty vanities^of personal
ambition, but the work they have left to posterity is a high tribute to the

at Sir* ■""'i' """I a*

nearts and the faculty of imagination with which they were endowed

Lying at a distance of about three hundred miles to the^south of Poona
toese districts extend their boundaries into the heart of w a i, i’

Deccan on the east and to Kolhapur, Sawantwadi and Jath on the we^

at one tilTnlTXrswavTf th ‘p^l

equivalent is kjda !r kasMda. f

meaning. The resemblance between the words m^ S taken W T"

Persia during the reign orthe Ph ^®™tak had political contact with

A.n.) ® Chalukyan Emperor, Pulikesi II (7th century

which “Ld the Teat'^sc iT " f‘’ « describe it,

a feminine form of art which did nS; eal^ f ° there flourished,

sensibility. Both muTt have bet i^Z '‘"d artistic

devotional qrge prevailing amono- fh f ^ religious fervour and

while the men with their gi-eater nhvsIcAr^imagine that,

monuments of art. that® Tere to'b?t^e 1 “‘I “y^lding stone into
women in the quiet atmosphere of the home "a ^^^^ding ages, the
creative urge, turned their attention to the H ^'“y^d no less by the same

teautafymg their apparel and surrounding T^e'^d' fT* ®™*’'’0‘<iery for
fingers, combined with the deUcaev nS!' their nimble

THE KOMANCE OF INDIAN EMBKOIDERY

in womankind, began to turn out beautiful pieces of embroidery on such
pieces of cloth as came to hand. This work must have been primarily
intended for the delight and use of members of the family, without the
faintest notion in the artist’s mind that her unambitious handwork would
attract the attention of the community at large.

Kasuti not a Cottage Industry

The areas where kasuti work flourished, and which even to this day
are producing rich specimens of it, are the districts of Dharwar and Bijapur.
Kasuti exists in the Belgaum district and in the neighbouring territory of
Jath, Sangli, Miraj and Jamkhandi and in the Portuguese territory of Goa.
Traces of it are also to be found in Maharashtra, where, however, it assumes
a simpler and less artistic form. The pre-occupation of the population of
Maharashtra in military exploits and the art of Government appears to
have resulted in the comparative neglect of the finer graces of life with
which a domestic, and essentially feminine, art like that of embroidery is
closely connected. Kasuti has not developed into a cottage industry,
and there is reason to fear that it may become a forgotten art but for the
efforts of a few individuals who have been at some pains to preserve it.
In some of the Kannada Girls’ Schools and in the Training College for Women,
Dharwar, this work is taught to girls, but, as litle encouragement is being-
received from the public, marked enthusiasm or interest in kasuti has not
been maintained. It should also be mentioned that a missionary centre at
Gadag in Dharwar District is producing a type of kasuti work with the

help of women boarders in their hostel.

The reason why this art did not grow into a cottage industry is,
oerhaps, that the products were not regarded as marketable commodities.

To be able to turn out this kind of embroidery by her own skill was, and is,

considered one of the accomplishments of a woman. She is satisfied if she
learns how to stitch so that she may embroider designs to her taste on her
own sari and bodice and on the few garments used by her children. If she
could embroider her own kubsa (bodice), the sharagu {genev^\y “ ^

buvine reaW-made embroidered garments did not occur to the
there Imple folk, since every woman was expected to be familiar with foe
cmbroide^ her requirements were few, her family income wm hinited and
the handwoven material used by her strong and durable. .lUthough there is
no eXe foLtry. one can stUl see on an afternoon or evening foe spectacle

KASUTl

1. A Pair of Kunchis

2. Kubsa

< •

r <s •

4 S. ^

• ^

4 *

KASUTI OF THE KARNATAK

of small groups of women, assembled, in a courtyard, chatting and working
away at the beautiful designs for which kasuti is famous.

While kasuti did not become a cottage industry, with the develop¬
ment of the weaving industry, many of the original kasuti designs were
reproduced on the handloom with greater speed and less labour. The
inevitable consequence was that the kasuti designs gradually receded into
the background. The weavers, however, restricted their attention to
weaving these designs on kubsa pieces, generally known as llkal khanns.
Khann weaving is highly developed in the Karnatak Districts, the khanns
with their elaborate designs being the staple brocaded fabric in these districts.
Before the khanns captured the market, Paithani khanns, with similar
woven designs, manufactured at Paithan on the Godavari, were in vogue.
The relation between embroidered and woven designs will be pointed out

lofl/Cl' OH*

^njiuencing factors

f 1, factors that have influenced kasuti seem to be, in the main reli^don

the architecture of the districts, and the objects with which the housewife

CRULC into dailv Ponfopf m _ i* 1 _

-uujcuts witn wnicr

came into daily contact in the normal course of her life Most of tbi-

patterns are closely related to the temple amhitecture. the Ltrbeinl the

star-shaped designs representing the lotus flower, the chariot

-other. The formation of the designs bears a X reseXnee t th^
“ temples of the Vesara or later ChalWan stvle .

m Dharwar, Maisur (Mysore) and the Dekkhan enmbi ^ ^stributed

temple architecture go^. n This is so fer f h.

{Plate XIV)

common objects, we have the tiUsi

important

bull and other familiar

Among animals ^d birds the fu .

peacock with spread plumes and the narrot amban (howdah), the

and are lar!relv_eon«..«™.r“““’- ^ l“ve their own

Up -

waavcuuouai, tHc Hame supplying the kf^v fr. fu
Id ank3et-bel&, supplying the details which help ImZ

A.***? : r < . •

♦ W- -

-• .r 1. ’i”

THE ROMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

outline of the lotus. The combination of the swan and lotus in one design
recalls memories of the frescoes of Ajanta which abound in similar com¬
binations. Many of the designs are disposed in geometrical patterns so as
to produce a kaleidoscopic effect. These geometrical designs point to an
early stage in the evolution of the embroidery.^® It will be found that
the early work of a country or people is often geometrical, that is, cross-
stitch, canvas stitches, or counted stitches are much used, stitches which
are regulated by the warp and weft threads and can theiefore be worked
accurately, almost mechanically, on the web of the material.

One of the designs is worth special mention. Coomaraswamy
refers to a design of four deer on a Chalcidean vase, on the Ajanta Murals
and finally in South India.” Variants of the design with two, four or eight
deer are also to be found. Another design is also of particular interest.
It is known as Varaha-godambi, or cashew-nut made of varaha, i.e., coins
current in olden times. This design is really a counterpart of the famous
and classic mango design common in other parts of India. Among other
beautiful designs that show the association of ideas and link up the kasuti
work with Dravidian culture are the “Bhashinga” or the bridegroom’s
headdress and “ Kalingana Mada ” or the serpent’s coil {Plate XV, 1 <& 2).

Colour and Design

The colours most frequently used for the embroidery are red, crimson,

purple, green and orange, the brighter tones being preferred. One strikmg

Ltoe of this embroidery is that it is multi-coloured, with a hamomous

blending, which reveals a true artistic sense. The usual colour eombinatioiw

are red, green, orange and purple, or crimson, green and orange ; blue and

yellow are rarely combined. It is very unusual to find a pattern X
Le or two colours, because a rich variety of colours is a characteristic of

this type of embroidery. It would appear that the designs were

worked out with bits of silk thread of various colours, picked up from the
worKcu , , , length of siharnpu ot a

remnants

sari, fresh from the handloom.

The silk used for embroidery, at the present day, is obtain^ from
the State of Mysore. Formerly the silk was obtemed ^akutta an

Sw aTd Tyed in the Bijapur District. Earlier, f the «eam

executed is handwoven cloth of a dark colour, ordinarily black from wh^
:"VcwWn’s garments arc made. The saris known as ZM sans

1. lilidshi til'd

Kdlin<>a

( Scrpcnr,s ) ('oil

f XV

L Nandi {huJl)

Palanquin

3. Floral Motif

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MORE KASUTl PATTERNS

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6. Floral Motij

i. ('radU

law XVJI

KASUTI OF THE KARNATAK

(from Ilkal, the name of a place near Bijapur) are each nine yards in length,

with a beautiful texture, a broad silk sharagu about half to three-fourths of

a yard in length and a daintily designed bright silk border, varying in width

from four to eight inches. The borders of Ilkal saris are usually of red,

green or pm’ple colour. The colours of the borders of the same sari are

sometimes different, and the borders are then termed ganga-jamuna borders.

These saris are in vogue in the Karnatak Districts, of which they are an

indigenous industry. The embroidery is done on the cotton material only,

and covers the sari from end to end. The lay-out of the embroidery is as

follows : Near the sharagu come the bigger designs. These are followed by

designs of diminishing sizes and differing composition, care being taken to

avoid repetition. Parallel to these are alternate rows of floral motifs.

As the patterns become smaller and smaller in size, the distances between

succeeding patterns become wider and wider. The embroiderer often begins

with a gopuram or an elephant and ends up with clusters of stars or even
with mere dots {Plate XIX).

lypes oj ;sutcti

n 1 varieties : (1) gavnti or the line and

back stitch (2) negi or the ordinary running stitch, (3) menthi or the cross-

stitch and (4) murgi, a zig-zag running stitch. Gavnti is probably derived

iY(^ganU, meaning a knot. Negi is derived from the Kannada root neu

which means ‘ to . , . _ ^

fte old Kann d connected with menti of

the

^ ^mster of

IS the most common stitch, and the embroiderv in this

deh .s regarded as perfect only when it is equally neat and presents the
same design on the wrorirr oc ,,r..ii ... 4 -u. ^ tne

Strikingly beautiful

’ an^yTsi; “r'emrrkX^d'eftaers

abounding

rSrs':“!>vTn d^r in^hr^ r “ - -

strokes'alTn ieatinr'Many

is3; resoTfed^rwht ^tTliU '“'‘"th ' ’"t"

THE ROMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

heavy appearance to the embroidery, and is untidy in appearance on the
wrong side.

Taking kasuti embroidery as a whole, the result achieved is perfection
to a fault, and most of the designs would easily be mistaken for printed or
woven designs. It is worth while examining the accuracy of the design
when no canvas is used and the design is worked directly on cotton material.
The counting of the threads for spacing the stitches equally is a task which
puts an enormous strain on the eyesight and patience of the embroiderer.
The designs are usually planned and the proportions determined by means
of dots. The same method is adopted for rangoli designs to determine the
size and area. It is interesting to note that Coomaraswamy has also
referred to designs made up of lines and dots in old embroideries in one of

his works.

Embroidered and Woven Designs

The relation between embroidered and woven designs is interesting.
Which came first it is difficult to say with certainty, although it is probable
that embroidered designs preceded woven designs, since hand designing
appears to be a necessary preliminary to the production of a design on the
loom. A few designs are common to embroidery and weaving. Although
the designs are closely related, the difference is great and the relationship
is not easily discernible owing to the size of the pattern, the mode of execution
and the lay-out (Plate XVIII). True lovers of art prefer hand-embroidered
to woven designs, but the latter being less costly are within the reach of
the majority. The embroiderer, being essentially an artist, is not satisfied
with copying old designs, but always creates new ones, while the products
of looms tend to become stereotyped after a time. It would be a pity if
woven designs were to crowd the embroidered designs out of existence, of

which there is danger unless encouragement is given

women artists who still continue to produce rich and varied patterns

of this embroidery.

It must be mentioned that in Mysore, in some portions ot
Hyderabad Deccan and in certain areas under Dravidian
have negi designs woven with gold thread in the shara^. Su* desi^

embroidery is not popular in these parts. It may be that silk fabnes being
diffteult to work on owing to their close texture embroidery of the ka^

noTSLl much scope to aourish. The fabric is a factor needing

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

. '4 ;-': u^ - S'? ‘.rf- <^ • .

2. Shtiragu or Pallav of a sari

XIX

- ,

■

KASUTI OF THE KARNATAK

4 ]

careful attention, and it must be such as to enable the embroiderer to work
on it effectively the designs with the minimum of labour and material.

The Embroiderers

Art in its highest form knows no distinction of creeds, and cuts
across communal barriers. The embroiderers belong to different faiths
and callings. Among them are to be found weavers, tailors and agricul¬
turists. It is remarkable that this highly developed art should have its
votaries among people of very limited means, people who have to labour
hard to keep body and soul together. It only proves that the love of the
beautiful can assert itself in the hearts of men and women in any walk
of life. Kasuti work as an accomplishment of women of the richer and
lower middle classes is gradually becoming a forgotten art, because they
choose to buy readymade substitutes rather than embroider their own clothes.
With the growing keenness of the struggle for existence among the very
poor and the cheap woven and printed designs which command a ready sale
there is no incentive for them to keep alive this art unless it can bring
them an adequate return. It is, therefore, all the more necessary for those
who are interested m preserving the culture of this great country and its
people to do everything in their power to revive the art by making it better
known and worth cultivating. No reference has been made in this chapter
to the embroideries of the Banjara or Lamani tribes which are comnlon in
of eattk districts and which are largely used for decorating the trappings

1 K In collecting the material for this chapter the author has had to
labour under the disadvantage of the absence of any work dealing with the

InfoLSaTto be

g aned from p^tmgs, sculptures and specimens of embroidery preserved

Vi- r? ~

at Aihole and Pattadkal. From the date of the Chalukyan sculptures

would appear that like the nrh re erences in Kannada literature it

the Chalukya, Hoysala

Chapter VII

CHIKANKARI IN UTTAR PRADESH

C HIKAN embroidery is fascinating, although it is lacking in colour
and the attractiveness which is associated with colour. It is worked
with white cotton on a white base, usually of muslin. Its appeal lies in its
almost disarming and direct simplicity. The Gangetic plains, Uttar Pradesh
and Lucknow, in particular, have been the home and stronghold of this
simple and dignified art which continues with unabated popularity to the
present day. The origin of the word chikan has not been traced. Perhaps,
it is a corrupt form of the word chekeen or sequin, a coin valued at about
Rs. 4, which was current in several Indian ports, first struck in Venice about
the end of the 13th century and later introduced into Turkey. It may be
that the embroidery was sold for a price in terms of the chekeen. This is,

however, little more than a conjecture.

It is of interest to note that this type of embroidery has been popular
in towns and important cities like Delhi, Agra, Lucknow, Kanpur, Banaras,
Allahabad, Patna and Gaya through which the Ganges and her sister rivers
wind down on their ageless way to the dark blue waters of the Bay of
Bengal. One could say with confidence that chikan work is essentially an

industry nurtured and developed in Uttar Pradesh (U.P.)

It has been pointed out that the embroidery of Kashmir represents
the colourful and ravishing scenes of nature that abound in that paradise
on eaXthat the embroidery of Sind, Cutch and Kathiawar bespeaks ^e
Domp and pageantry of a princely order that is fast disappearing, and ^t
the kamH of the Karnatak is a manifestation of the spiritual and reli^oiM
leaS irf a sober people who have a strong disinelinat on to pve up their

Lmestie surroundings. The simple, yet bea^iful, ^ ^3*^°

beTide the mark if a suggestion was made that the purity of the waters
of the holy rivers is reflected in cMkanhm f

It is a weU-known fact that white work was popul^ in the ChurA
embmidm^ “of oLiany in the Uth and ™

rb^”of“tf wall pieces in the churches.

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Chikankari:

A Sari pallav in Bukhia and jaJi ivork

Plate XX

4 »

ft ^

«»

49 '

CHIKANKARI IN UTTAR PRADESH

especially in Rome and other Italian cities. While the gold and silver

embroidery was an emblem of high dignity, the white embroidery stood for

purity and simplicity of life. Chikan work is comparable to this austere
type of embroidery, suggesting the idea of purity.

Chikan work appears to have gained in popularity with the trade

mnnoT»/%/a Txrlri^K ^ J.!__ __I ■ . t

commerce

— .. -- Lu ciiiutiier wiifi tne

help of inland navigation on the Ganges and other Indian rivers, the only
means of communication between distant places before the development
of modern methods of transport. The influence of chikan embroidery is
traceable as far as Dacca in the East, although in East Bengal it has
undergone a transformation by being adapted to loom products.

Captain Meadows Taylor is quoted as referring to the 9th century
A.D. as a period when the merchants of Bussora carried on direct trade with
Eastern India and China and a large number of Mahomedans settled down

embroidery, among other

‘he markets of Arabia. The
AbM de Gnyon, writing in 1774, says that the best and finest Indian

embroideries in gold, silver and silk and those embroidered neck cloths

and fine muslins which are seen in France come from Dacca. Dr Ananda

ngal, but that Lucknow is its great modern centre. ■» Sir George Watts

^™ces. Acconiing to him the Kings of Oudli attraeZ to thl^ eaZal
why to ThisT/LlknoVr'”'']

be found in almost any other town of India. “ Chikan,” heZvs “ i!
perhaps, the most remarkable of these crafts.” ^ ’

b, r;."' £".'2“ trr T

SzsrSr’h .

the pattern of geese. Is not this suLLTeti

India ? No doubt the Z n T Eastern

^cour^gement to embroiderv ami P^l^^onage and

nnique

?!i •! y

y V

Jlhey

^ '

THE ROMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

popular in the United Provinces. The muslins of Dacca and the beautiful
flowered loom products of Bengal make a distinct and separate class, falling
outside the category of hand embroidery. Dr. Ananda Coomaraswamy
puts the flowered muslins of Bengal into the class of “ loom tapestries.”
He points out that the patterns, usually flower sprays, seem to have been

inserted by hand as the work proceeded.

It may appear difficult to reconcile the idea of purity derived from
the waters of the Ganges represented by the white chikan embroidery of
the Uttar Pradesh with Muslim workers, but this seeming inconsistency is
explained by the overwhelming power of art and culture to transcend

religious barriers.

The climatic conditions of the Gangetic valley and the mode of
dress of the people are particularly suited to this type of embroidery. The
flowing juha, the short waistcoat and the white cap, which comprise the
male attire, no less than the women’s apparel, are suited to chikan work.

Chikan work comes nearest to the linen embroidery and laces of the
West. Chikankari, having no colour scheme to make it striking to the
eye or to camouflage the defects of design and stitch, has, nevertheless a
finish and richness, all its own. It can be described as bearing the same
relation to embroidery as sculpture bears to the art of painting, for in chikan,
as in sculpture, form and pattern alone are depended upon to produce
varying motifs and combinations. Strange as it may seem, it is true that
as many as thirty varieties of designs exist in chikan work.

Chikankari does not employ a large variety of stitches, although it
makes use of ordinary stitches like the satin stitch, the stem stffch, the
back stitch, the herring-bone stitch and the button-hole stitch. The cross
stitch is rare; so are geometrical designs. The designs are borrowed from
objects easily available and connected with daily life, such as different

kinds of grain.

The taipichi is said to be the easiest type of stitch. It consists of

strokes or straight lines in the desired direction to designs, and may be
emoloved for embroidering outlines or running designs. As in other
tvoes of embroidery which represent familiar objects, in chikan work also
one comes across patterns representing grain like rice and mUlet, known by
the names of murvi and pha/nda respectively. ^

The bukhia is the most intricate of chikan designs, and « ^ompara^ e
to the shadow work of the present day. The stitches in this ^^ign cover
the back of the cloth in the style of the herring-bone stitch, producmg an

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Chikankari: A blouse collar

Plate X

4 *

CHIKANKARI IN UTTAR PRADESH

opaque effect on the surface of the fine white fabric, and at the same tin

an outline of motifs of flowers and leaves with minute stitches resemblii

the strokes of the back stitch. This is supposed to be the true chikan j

contrasted with another type, called the khatao, which produces a simil

effect, but is only an imitative design. Khatao is a kind of appliqu^ woi

which makes use of the same fabric to produce opacity, and requisitions tl

aid of the taipichi or some other ordinary stitch for the outline. Both thes

styles of embroidery belong to the category known as “flat” embroider'

as distinguished from the murri, phanda and other knotted varieties whic

are designated by the term “embossed” embroidery. In the absence (

colour, it is the embossing which makes chikan work beautiful, even £

outstanding nobility of demeanour, speech and action beautify a life c
austere simplicity.

Jali work, or netting, which may be likened to the drawn threai

work known to us, is another style common in chikan embroidery. Th

jal% however, is not produced by drawing out the threads, but by breakin

up the fabric into holes and tightening them to suit the pattern and t<

give the cloth the appearance of a net. To draw out the threads would b

regarded as a slovenly procedure employed to produce an imitation jali

Jalu are of different kmds, as for example, Madras Jali and Calcutta Jali

and sometimes they are very elaborate and intricate. Latterlv th<

embroiderers have started using coloured thread to a little extent but dud

white chikan cannot be compared with the coloured variety since the formei
has an elegance and beauty of its own.

Chapter VIII

GOLD AND SILVER EMBROIDERY

I « «

A MONG the different types of embroidery, known to exist in India gold
and silver embroidery has, perhaps, the most ancient and interesting
history. As already mentioned, it is the oldest known embroidery,, and the
mojst widespread. It has established itself as a cottage industry, employing
the largest number of embroidery workers. It differs from the other types
of embroidery discussed in the preceding chapters in two impprtant
particular's. Its characteristics are not peculiar to any geographical region,
and its unique position is due to its economic value as an indigenous
industry, rather than to its artistic appeal.

The earliest reference to gold fabric in India is to be found in the
description of a counterpane in the Yajurveda,^ ^ while the existence of
copper, silver and gold needles has been proved by the Taithriya Brahmana®"
and the Satapatha Brahmaha^S both of which speak of three kinds of
needles, viz., of iron or rather copper, silver and gold. India is believed
to have been the first country to perfect the art of weaving, and, in particular,
the weaving of gold brocades and fiiie muslins. The following references in
the Exodus go to show that gold embroidery was also known to the Israelites:
“ And he made the Ephod of gold, blue and purple . ., . and they did beat
the gold into thin plates and cut it into wires . . . , to work it in . . . with
cunning work.” “The King’s daughter is all glorious within ... her
raiment is wrought of gold.” Coming down to the period of the Maha-
bharata, it would appear that fine muslins and shawls formed p^t of
presents brought to Yudhisthira by feudatory princes. Pre-Buddhist
India presents a prosperous picture of India’s trade with Persia and other
countries further West as well as with countries in the Far East, in the
course of which merchandise, including muslins, brocades and embroideries,
is said to have been exported from India to those countries.** The kings
are described as wearing the finest silk and wool and covering their feet
with golden slippers, and the state elephants as brightly arrayed with
trappings and girths of gold.*’ The costume of Prince Goyame is said to
have surpassed “ the delicacy of a horse’s foam, white and worked with
gold at the corners.** Homer’s Odyssey, refers to a golden net the texture
of which was as fine as “ filmy webs.” Sanskrit books of a later period,
particularly the works of Kalidasa and Banabhatta, also contain exquisite

descriptions of clothes of beautiful designs.

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Hadia n'orkcd in sihcrr .strips
Kaiiidaiii rvorkcd on net

I’I a I t A A

GOLD AND SILVER EMBROIDERY

The kinkhab, or gold and silver brocade industry, of India is famous,
and has been referred to in the Jatakas. It appears to have been known in
China as far back as the 7th century a.d., though under a different name :
k’o-ssu. Besides, the art of tapestry weaving, which is a type of
brocade, is attributed to the Chinese people.’*’ Strictly speaking, kinkhabs
do not fall in the category of embroidery, although, in the opinion of some,
the weaving of patterned fabrics on handlooms with small shuttles, and
work in the muslin or brocade style are a kind of needlework. Apart from
this fact, kinkhabs, like khanns and muslins, are closely allied to the gold
and silver thread industry to which they can be traced. ( Plate XXIII, 2 & 3).

The derivation of the word kinkhob or kincob has been a subject of
much interesting speculation in some of the older books. An ingenious
explanation is that “Mw” means little and “A:wa6” means sleep or dream
in mediaeval Persian and Arabic, and that the brocade was given the name
of kinkhab because it was so rough that it would disturb the sleep of the
wearer. Another fanciful explanation given by one writer is that it was so
called because “ a man could not even dream of it who had not seen it.”
Hoffman has a more satisfying explanation. He attributes the origin of
the word to the Chinese language, in which “A;m” means gold and “iiott”
means a flower-gold flower. If this explanation is accepted, then the
theory that this kind of cloth came from the West, that is, Persia or Arabia
c^ot hold Its ground. Pelliot mentions that persons of high decree in
Funan are described by Chinese authors in the 5th century a.d. as wearing
bro^de cloth. The following quotations from books of about the 14th
centmy also contam references to gold and silver cloth. It is probable

A;wMa6 originated during the trade between India

1840

1842

The

ineir clothes are of Tartary cloth, and camocas and other
stones^* adorned with gold and silver and precious

‘‘ f f also that you will get three or three and a

alf pieces of damasked silk {cammocca) for a somme.”

to the Sultan 100 slaves of both

are important

.T*'

'* * • * •' t *

' ...

Lucknow,

(Deccan) and Madras. Kinkhabs are mainly produced in Banara?
Ahmedabad and Surat. Floral and geometrical patterns abound i
kinkhabs, the material being used for the making of caps, blouses, kurtat
waistcoats, salwars, cushions and upholstery. There is no doubt that th
development of this industry owes not a little to the great encouragemen
and patronage received by the workers from Muslim rulers.

Coming to gold and silver embroidery proper, known as karchob, i
may be divided into two main categories, according as the work is heav
or light. Zardozi is the name given to the heavier and more elaborate variet
in which the stitches are very close to each other. The less elaborate, o
lighter, embroidery on finer fabrics is called kamdani. The range of article
which are embroidered with gold and silver thread is very wide; and, i
spite of the expensiveness of the material, gold and silver embroidery i
used for decorating anything from the most costly wearing apparel to dail
footwear. Being a handmaid of pomp and pageantry, such embroider
is largely used for lending a dazzling appearance to trappings, elephan
housings, cushions, canopies and caps. Leather, velvet, silk and cotto:
are equally serviceable as suitable bases for it. The thread itself is c
several varieties, such as badla (thin strips of metal), kasab (thread coverei
with foil), spirals and tubes. The spangles that are often used in gold am
silver embroidery are of varying sizes and shapes. {Plate XXII & XXIII, 1]

So long as it was made by hand, and of genuine material, the got
wire produced in India enabled the industry to maintain its supremacy i;
trade with foreign countries. In recent times, however, owing to th
importation of imitation gold and silver thread, the industry has receive
a setback. The Government of India recently increased the import dut
on gold and silver thread by as much as 30 per cent, to give protection t
the industry, which supports nearly a lakh of people in a town like Sura
alone. Delhi was, until recently, an important centre of gold embroider
work, particularly on slippers. The general depression in trade has no
affected the industry to any great extent. In mediaeval India, Ahmedabai
was a great centre for articles of gold thread, and had trade contacts witl
Eastern markets from Cairo to Pekin. This continued until Portugal se
up its colonies in India and the East India Company established its factor;

at Surat.

Among the various types of oriental gold and silver fabric thos
which were produced in Aurangabad, Yeola, Poona and Paithan were a

GOLD AND SILVER EMBROIDERY

one time distinctive and famous. Paithan was well-known for the design
of the classic Chalukyan goose holding a twig in its mouth. Elephants and
parrots were also common in most designs. Oudh was noted for a type of
brocade with inwoven verses culled from the Koran or the Hindu scriptures.

Banaras and Surat are the two towns which continue to thrive as centres
of gold and silver thread industry to this day.

A great many of the stitches which exist in other well-known types
of embroidery are also to be found in gold and silver embroidery, although
the actual execution may be different in some cases. The satin stitch is
employed for embroidering caps, borders and other articles of dress which
require the heavy type of embroidery. The chain stitch resembles its
counterpart in Cutch work, and it is generally used on saris. The stem
stitch and the running stitch are used for a miscellaneous kind of work.
The laid stitch, or couching, as it is called, is important, and suited to gold

cushion covers and on mmnads (small
carpets). The running stitch goes well with Bner and net-like fabrics

Ap^ from the embroidery proper, there are numerous types of gold and
nff^r designs, borders and pallavs, which are

which determine their style, fashion or distinguishing chaLterltic. Some

»d LiT' me T“-jhiteetural monuments, sculptures
a trescoes. The spangles serve the same purpose as mirrors in

iibal embroidery and m the embroidery of Sind Cutch and Kathia

with the needle on softer material t goddesses, or

of nature, aims at creating snmett.^ represent the beauties of the objects

source of delight not only to his contempormi^ to to^t ^

of men and women. Gold and silver nfF^ J future generations

embroiderer than material like silk or entf ^ ^ S^^uter attraction to the

apart from its traditional useTarnie^^,^Jf. “ ■“^-tion.

Chapter IX

A FEW MISCELLANEOUS TYPES

WING to unavoidable reasons, chief among them being the difficulty
of collecting samples, it has not been possible to devote separate
chapters to some types of embroidery which are, nevertheless, important.
These are, therefore, briefly referred to in this chapter.

Kantha of Bengal

The kantha embroidery of Bengal deserves mention as a craft which
employs waste material. The work, however, is artistic in the highest
degree. It conveys the religious sentiments of the people as well as their
artistic aspirations. The kantha quilts unfold stories from the epics,
illustrate legends and represent deeds of heroism and adventure by means
of patches of cloth sewn on the base by the simple running stitch. The
stitches run in several directions and form the motif. They are wrought
with such dexterity and fineness that no one would suspect that it was a
type of quilting. It passes muster for a highly refined type of embroidery.
The embroiderer starts from a centre and proceeds to work around it in
circular fashion. The cotton saris of Bengal, with their coloured woven
borders, supply the raw material for producing the variety of intricate
patterns in this type of embroidery. The Bratachari Society of Bengal has
a large and unique collection of kantha embroidery which was made by the
late Mr. G. S. Dutt, a Bengal Civilian. These samples repesent work
which originated with the poorer classes of people who found in it a means
of overcLing their economic difficulties, and consequently deserves

encouragement^(^^^^^^ are also common in Peshawar and the North-Western
Province where they prove useful on account of the rigours of a cold climate.
Kantha embroidery is comparatively recent.

all over the world, but the patches have invariably geometrical shapes.
In kantha work the quilting shows a further development and has
appearance of embroidery designs stitched with a free hand.

Laces and Linen Embwideties

The laces of South India and, especially those of Travancore w

missionary centres and

A kantha design from Bengcd

Travamore Laces

A P'EW MISCELLANEOUS TYPES

embroideries in the West. They are, fiowever, lii^lily inllueiieed by Western

teehnique. The lace workers’ industry lias (le\ elo])ed into a e(dtaoe ijidustiA

—* «

and it was first introduced in 1818 . The laee work has beeji attributed
to the influence of the Dutch and the Portuguese ja-ople. fdiien einbi-oidei ie
in numerous centres in South India have beautilul patterns, bul tbe\' Jia\
no indigenous touch about them. Siniihirly, delicate woik with gokj and
silver thread is also done in such centres but there is nothiinxnienlal about it

{Plate XXV).

numals oj Lfiantha

Chamba is a place in the South-Westei-n ranges ol' tiie llinialaxas
which is famous for its rumals. The\^ are not to be seen in the markets of
bigger cities, but are noted for their embroiders' which imitates tiie Pahai i
schools of paintings. It is worked in tlie simple stitch, but composed
beautifully, often depicting the Krishna Lila, Has, (jther pm-anie subjects
and legends and ragas and raginis. Dr. Kraimiseh has deseriix’d this

O ' cti 1*j I I llci> ' J

embroidery as a translation of painting into embroiders'. 'I'he <renuine
Chamba rumals ought to be neatly worked on both sides,'aeeonliii.T to the
convention of Indian embroidery. The outlines are in dark silk, and the

riln fiTn' f»'>'>ing stiteh the gaps on both sides

eing filled in. Figures, trees, flowers and arehiteetural designs are used

Ind^n'^d^^ T“'‘ surroundings

noted T ^ "hieh deserves to be-

embrofdeiw The T" something unique in

of EgvnT would'" ; Of pelmets like those

or Jj^gypt would attract considerable interest,
embroidery needs greater encouragement.

This

tistie type of

onawls and Quilts

:r, ;'.s°E ?riir*ls, “rpcn:

THE ROMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

Tribal Embroidery

The embroidery of migratory tribes like the Lamanis show special
features common throughout the length and breadth of India, revealing

similarity

Beads, shells, mirrors and metallic pieces

are made use of to produce decorative designs. The joining together of
various pieces, decoration with tassels and applique work are some of the
means employed in this type of work. The ordinary satin stitch and the
herring-bone variety are the popular stitches used for such embroidery.
Traces of this influence are visible in the embroidery of Sind, Cutch and
Kathiawar.

Slippers and Saddlery

Embroidery on leather is an important and profitable industry with
considerable scope for expansion. Delhi, Peshawar and the Himachal
Pradesh are known for their trade in Indian shoes and sandals, embroidered
with intricate designs and studded with tassels of gold and silver. Perhaps
the North-West Frontier Province bears the palm for embroidered foot¬
wear. Foreign markets would provide ample scope for the export from
this country of embroidered leather bags and belts.

The North-West Frontier

It has not been possible for the author to collect samples of the
embroidery of the North-West Frontier Province. It is, however, necessary
to mention the beautiful embroidery both in silk and gold and silver thread
to be seen on the waist-coats of the Pathans and on their turbans as well
as on their sandals. The embroidery of this region shows an affinity to
that of Turkey and Persia on the one hand and that of the Punjab,
especially the phulkari designs on the other. Among the household
embroidered articles the most common are baskets of various shapes and

sizes with woollen embroidery.

Assam

figure among the areas which are known for their embroide^
anne is better known for its textiles, prints and matting.

Where

and Andhra are famous for their handloom

sulipatam and the mats of Assam

thrives, embroidery

Chapter X

CONCLUSION

TN spite of the fact that embroidery in India has come down to us, trailing

clouds of glory from the Vedic past, and that it has been an important

item of international trade for over 3,000 years, the organisation of its

production and its markets as a valuable handcraft industr}^ appears to

have received little or no attention hitherto. Even in the larger cities,

which have departments of village and small-scale industries run by

governments, it is difficult to find a complete collection of the different

types of embroidery, or any machinery for receiving and executing orders

from individual customers. The result is that the customer has to be

content with what he finds in the show-case, or what is shown to him as
available.

tnan

The art of embroidery is more easy, and costs less to learn
most of the other arts. It can be practised by a large majority of
people, as it does not demand any special or cultural training like
any of the fine arts. As a subsidiary occupation, especially for women
who prefer to work in their own homes, it is almost unrivalled It is
however, as a cottage industry that embroidery has the greatest scope It
provides the agriculturist with an additional source of income, and useful
employment of the long hours of leisure which are his to turn to sood
account or to waste. He has an innate sense of colour and rhythm, and
takes to embroidery as naturally as a duck takes to water. That is whv

prodded a VO "t fl°”*^hed in agricultural tracts, and

he art or industry, by whatever name one may choose to call it cannot

this secured for embroidered goods and

this requires organisation. ” ’

eottao/* ""’^estigating the possibility of setting up

deserve the Intention economics of hand embroidery

ne atrention ot the research worker. If the salec u

enLulSed’bv hT*’*'**'™^"* industrial co-operatives must

sep~f fgn/ musfbe" ^ T" T

signs must be prepared for home consumption and export.

THE ROMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

The articles that find a ready sale in foreign markets are often of a different
class from those popular in this country. The resources of the agrieulturist
in the countryside must be harnessed for such purposes, but it can only be
done by persons endowed with vision, a missionary zeal and a keen sense of
art and beauty. There are actually in several places missionary centres
which prepare articles for export and manage the centres successfully,
employing bands of women belonging to aboriginal or backward tribes.

From the foregoing chapters it must have become evident to the
reader that among the several embroideries mentioned only three types,
viz.. Kashmir, Chikan and gold and silver embroidery, have so far developed
into permanent cottage industries, even though all of them have not
reached a stage which may be said to be satisfactory both from the point
of view of the producer and that of the consumer. The embroidery of
Sind and the Punjab, has been taking root, because of the partition and
rehabilitation work, since embroidery has come in as a handy occupation
for displaced women. Cutch and Kathiawar work has been latterly
becoming fashionable, and its prospects seem to be encouraging, but original
phulkciTi work, kcisuti embroidery, kttiithci work and Chumba lumals, parti¬
cularly the last three, are almost unknown in several parts of the country.
A revival of these types of embroidery on articles suited to the modern
Indian home, and their development as cottage industries are of importance
both from the aesthetic and the economic points of view.

The art of embroidery was beholden to the patronage extended to it
by the prince, the zamindar (landholder), and generally by the aristocracy
of India. Under India’s new Constitution, these classes of wealthy patrons
are not likely to continue for long. The artists will, therefore, have to seek
the patronage of the public and the State. Following the example of the
Jatni and the Kathiawar! woman who, out of a patriotic sentiment, inclu es
at least one embroidered phulkari or chokla in her daughter’s trousseau, our
women folk may well select pieces of embroidery for their own wardrobes,
as part of a bride’s trousseau or as wedding presents. This would be one
effective way of encouraging the production and sale of hand embroidered
articles of dress. It is difficult to develop hand embroidery as a sole
occupation in view of the time and labour it involves, but, as a subsidiary
occupation, it has great potentialities, and all avenues must be explore
to expand subsidiary occupations which make good use of leisure for more

reasons than one. . i j* u

Government can encourage the art of embroidery by "

among the handcrafts in which practical training is given to women teache

CONCLUSION

as part of their curriculum. Work in kantha and gahha embroidery would
be useful not only on account of the training it provides in the skilful use
of the hands and fingers but also because these branches of the industry
help in the utilisation of waste cloth, which is a paying economic proposition.
Even in those schools in the Karnatak where embroidery is taught today,
there is eonsiderable scope for improvement in the instruction given to
the pupils. It is not enough to teach how to make a few pieces of embroidery.
While the technique and the stitches are taught in the lower standards, in
the higher ones pupils need to be acquainted with the historical background
and the varieties of the craft as it is known in India. In addition to the
knowledge of the regional embroidery the pupils need to be given some
idea of Indian embroidery as such, so that their minds may be rightly
impressed by the unity of culture which runs through the diverse mani¬
festations of this homely but important art.

History has demonstrated that the encouragement, through
patronage or otherwise, which ruling chiefs in several parts of the country
have been instrumental in giving to the handcraft of embroidery was
responsible in the past for the trade in embroidered goods which existed
between India and other countries not only in the immediate but in the

remote past. The industry requires to be developed as a subsidiary

indigenous industry, especially among the agriculturists, not merely for

bettering their economic condition which is otherwise pitiably poor, but

as part of the cultural programme which is necessary if the cultural and

trade contacts which once existed are to be maintained and a useful

indigenous industry is to be placed on a stable basis. The planning of the

programme must be on scientific lines, and chalked out with due regard

to the nature of the demand in foreign markets. It may be necessary to

manufacture two different types of goods, those which have a local demand

and those which have only a foreign market. As the tourist class provides

the majority of customers for artistic products of this kind, care must be

taken to study their tastes and special requirements and efforts made to
meet them as far as possible.

p advance the economic condition of the industry, the

cultural and histone aspect of embroidery must always be kept in view

t?® T**? representative of

an life and thought should be jealously preserved. The Archaological
whe^ir ’ ^“<=ation Department and the National Cultural l^st

preservation imd revival. Designs which have survived the vlciL"

THE ROMANCE OF INDIAN EMBROIDERY

of political change and withstood the ravages of time by virtue of their
symbolic national character, such as the gopuram^ the chariot, the swan,
the lotus, the elephant, the peacock, the Chalukyan goose, the mango and
the chenar leaf must be popularised and adapted to changing fashions
without loss of their special characteristics.

History repeats itself. The shawl weaving industry of Amritsar,
as pointed out in an earlier chapter, owed its emergence to a famine in
Kashmir. The partition of India has resulted in the displacement of large
populations from the Punjab, Bengal and Sind. Large numbers of persons
familiar with the embroidery of these regions have been obliged to leave their
home towns and villages and migrate to distant places and settle down in
new surroundings. In consequence of their new contacts it is possible that
they may evolve new forms of embroidery, either as a reaction to the impact
of new ideas, or because they have to make their products suit the tastes of
their new customers. Embroidery has been the mainstay of many displaced
women, as is only too well-known. The calamities which have overtaken
them may well bring about a revival and strengthening of this ancient
industry. It is up to us to make the most of the opportimity which the
course of events in India’s political history has brought to her doors, and
thus turn the consequences of a catastrophe to the best account possible.

APPENDIX I

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO STITCHES

Satin Stitch

1. Africa (North).

2. China.

3. England.

4. France.

5. Greece.

6. India (Kashmir).

7. Iran.

8. Japan.

9. Turkey.

Line or Darning Stitch

1. Arabia.

2. Baluchistan.

6 .

Gold and Silver Embroidery

1. Arabia.

2. China.

3. Egypt.

4. England.

5. France.

6. India.

7. Italy.

8. Portugal.

9. Spain.

Egypt.

Greece.

India (N.-W. F.
Punjab, Sind,
Kathiawar).

Iran.

Prov.,

Cutch,

7. Turkey.

2 .

Cross Stitch

1. Africa (North).

2. Austria.

3. England.

4. Greece.

5. Hungary.

6. India (Karnatak).

7. Italy.

8. Russia.

9. Scandinavia.

10. Slav Countries.

11. Turkey.

Interlaced Stitch

1. Germany.

India (Cutch, Sind and
Kathiawar).

3. Spain.

Chain Stitch

1. Egypt.

2. England.

3. India—(Kashmir, Cutch)

1 .

2 .

Appliqui and Quilting

England.

France.

India—(Kashmir,
N.-W. Frontier
Bengal).

Persia.

Sind,

Prov.,

2 .

Herring Bone

1. Greece.

India (Kashmir, U.P.,

Sind, Cutch, Kathia¬
war).

APPENDIX II

B I BLIOGRAPHY

Aitken (E. H.).Gazetteer of the Provinee of Sind, Vol. A, Karaehi, 1907.

Bird WOOD (George, C. M.) ... The Industrial Arts of India, New Edition, Lond.

Broderies Hindoues .

CooMARASwAMY (A. K.) ... History of Indian and Indonesian Art, London, 1927.

The Arts and Crafts of India and Ceylon, London, 1913.

Encyclopcedia Britannica (American Edition), 1948.

Ganguli (K. K.)... ... ... Chamba Rumal, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental

Art, Vol. XI, 1943, pp. 69-74.

Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, Vol. V : Cutch, Palanpur, and Mahi Kantha, Bombay,

1880.

Griffith (Ralph, T. H.)

Hailey (W. M.) ...
Haug (Martin) ...

... The Hymns of the Rigveda, trans. with a popular com¬
mentary, 2 Vols. Second Edition, Benares 1896-97.

... Silk Industry of the Pimjab, Lahore, 1899.

... Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rigveda, edited, translated
and explained (Sacred Books of the Hindus Series),
Allahabad 1922.

The Journal of Indian Art, Vol. II, Nos. 17-24, London, 1888. (No. 18 is exclusively devoted
to the subject of embroidery. In No. 24, there appears the contribution of Mrs. F. A.
Steel on “ Phulkari Work in the Punjab.”)

Holme Geoffrey (Ed.)
Mehta (Ratilal N.) ...

Mookerjee (Ajit)

Moti Chandra .

Sinha (Sachchidananda)
Steele (Mbs. F. A.)

Watson (J. Foebes)

(

Watt (Sib Geoege)

Yule (Henby) and
Bubnell (A. C.)

... Book of Old Embroidery (1921) Studio Ed.

... Pre-Buddhist India, Bombay, 1939.

... Folk Art of Bengal, Calcutta, 1946.

... The History of Indian Costumes from the 3rd to« the end
of the 7th century a.d. Journal of the Indian Society
of Oriental Art, Vol. XII, 1944, pp. 1-97.

... Kashmir : The Playground of Asia, Allahabad, 1942.

... Phulkari Work in the Punjab, Journal of Indian Art,
Vol. II, 1888, pp. 71-72, with 28 illustrations.

... Textile Manufactures and the Costumes of the People

of India, London, 1866.

... Indian Art at Delhi, Calcutta, 1903.

... Hobson-Jobson. A glossary of colloquial Anglo-Indian
words, etc., New Ed. Edited by W. Crooke, London,

1903.

APPENDIX III

REFERENCES

1. Geoffrey Holme (Ed.): Book of Old Embroidery, Studio Ed. 1921

2 .

... p, 3
... Plate 2

... p. 193
... p. 236

6 .

» r ^ ^ w

Dr. A. K. Coomaraswamy; Arts and Crafts of India and Ceylon (1913)

C. M. Bird wood ; Industrial Arts of India

•••

Dr. Moti Chandra, J. I. S. O. A. : Monograph on the History of Indian
Costumes ..

Geoffrey Holme (Ed.) : Book of Old Embroidery. Studio Ed. 1921 .p. 30

Griffith : Hymns of the Rigveda, Hymn 32.4, Vol. I. 2nd Ed.p. 299

” ” ’» Hymn C 1 .8, Vol. II. 2 nd Ed. .p, 541

Haug’s Aitareya Brahmana of the Rigveda (Sacred Books of the Hindus, 1922) n. 126

8 .

Samhita

•' ' W \Jl^ 10

Geoffrey Holme (Ed.): Book of Old Embroidery. Studio Ed. 1921
C. M. Birdwood : Industrial Arts of India

10. Ratilal Mehta : Pre-Buddhist India
11-
12 .

• • »

• • «

• • •

• • ft

ft ft ft

Sachidananda Sinha : Kashmir : The Playground of Asia

13. Journal of Art and Industry Vol. II

ft ft

14.

ft ft ft

ft ft

15.

16.
17.

iQQQ\ ^ Industry : Phulkari Work in the Punjab

tt»8) . J

ft ft ft

Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. V. Cutch, Palanpur, Mahikantha
Aitken ; Sind Gazetteer

18. Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. V

ft ft ft

19.

20 .
21.
22.

23.

24.

25.

ft ft ft

ft ft

ft ft ft

Art

26.

27.

28.

^ffrey Holme (Ed.): Book of Old Embroidery. Studio Ed. 1921

Jeffrey Holme (Ed.): Book of Old Embroidery. Studio Ed. 1921
J ournal of Art and Industry, Vol. II

Dr jl. K. Coomaraswamy : Arts and Crafts of India & Ceylon

C. M. Birdwood : Industrial Arts of India

Taittiriya Brahmana III 9.6.5 .

Satapatha Brabmana XIII 2.10.3, Saered Books of the East Vol -
Ratilal Mehta : Pre-Buddhist India ’

ft ft

ft ft ft

ft ft

ft ft ft

... p. 265

... p. 2

... p. 235

... p. 228

... p. 194
p. 49

p. 61

p. 71
p. 71

p. 130
p. 396
p. 78
p. 117
p. 37
p. 25

p. 11
p. 206

P. 234

ft ft ft

ft ft

29 .

••ft AAft

••• ftftft

» » „ . .

Dr. Moti Chandrn T t q a "** '** •••

Costumes = Monograph on the History of Indian

■m « ** ••• •••

p. 327

p. 228
p. 108

Sncyclopeedia Britannica. vol. 22, 1 948
Yule and Burnell; Hobson-Jobson ...

ftftft

p. 18

••• p« 6

pp. 484-485

I X DE X

Abbe de Guyon, 43.
Abhira, 31.

Aegean Islands, 5.

Agra, 42.

A Mrs, 31.

Ahmedabad, 48.

Aihole, 41.

Ajanta, 38, 41.

Albania, 3.

Allahabad, 42.

Alwan, 21.

Ambari, 37.

Afnlikar, xii.

Amritsar, 21, 28, 51, 56.
Andhra, 52.

Andromache, 2.

Animal motifs, 37.

Applique work, 8, 20, 45, 51, 52
Arabia, 2, 6-7, 29, 30, 43, 47.

Architectural motifs, 51.

Aeia, 2.

Asia Minor, 2.

Assam, 4, 52.
Assyria, 9.

Aurangabad, 46.
Austria, 7.

Babylon, 3, 5, 9.

Back stitch, 39, 44, 45.

Badami, 35.

Badla, 48.

Bagh, 27, 28 .

Bags, 52.

Baluchistan, 27, 29, 30.
Banabhatta, 9, 46.
Banaras, 42, 47, 49.
Bandin, 32.

Banjara, 41.

Basketry, ix-x, 52.
Bayeux Tapestries, 6.

Beads, 7, 10, 52.

Belgaum,
Belts, 52.

36.

Bengal, 42-44, 50, 56-

Bhangar-gundu, 38.

Bhashingdh
Bhopal, 47.
Bhuj, 31.

Bihar, 52.

Bijapur, 36, 38.

Bird motifs, 37.

Blouses, 48.

Bombay, 48.

Borders, 39. *9, 60.

Brahfui, 41.

Bratachari Society. 5<h
Brocade, xii. 9, 46-48.

Buhhia, 44.

Busra (Bf^srah or Bussorai, 43.
Butterfly designs, 16.
Buttonhole stitcli, 30, 44.

DflCca, 43, 44-
Da^ ia, 18.

Darning -titoh, 7. 18, 26, 30. 3?.
Deccan, 51.

Delhi, 42. 47, 52.

Devardhigonij 10.

Dharwar, 36, 37.

Dhotis 9.

Dhuviia Baeh, 27
Diaper de-^ipns. 7.

Dravida. 37, 40.

Dupatta, 9.

Dutch, 7, 51.

Dutt (G. S.), 50.

Cairo, 2, 48.

Calcutta, 38, 45.

Cainocas (or Cammocca) see Kiii-

hhab, 47.

Candataka (petticoat), 9-
Canvas stitches, 38.

Cap8,.A8v>49.

pets, X, xi, 17, 19
Carter (Howard), 2.

Chaddars, 26.

Chain stitch, 3, 18, 20, 22-23,
30-33, 49.

Chaldea, 9.

Chalukya, 35, 37, 41, 49, 56.
Chamba, 51.

Chikan {Chikeen or Cliikanha^i),

42-45, 54.

China, xi-xii, 5, 17, 38, 43, 47.
Chinese Turkestan, 9.

Chobe, 27.

Choklas, 33.

Cholis, 31-33.

Church embroidery, vi, 42, 50-51.
Coomaraswamy (Dr. A.), 43-44.
Copper, 46.

Cotton, 19, 23-24, 28, 34, 39, 40,
42, 48-50.

Couching (see Laid-stitch), 32.
Counted stitches, 38.

Crete, 3.

Crimea, 3.

Crochet needle, 32-
CroBs stitoh, 7, 38, 39, 44.

CnshionB, 48, 49.

Cntch. 6, 29-34, 42, 49, 51, 52, 54.

East India Co., 48.

Egypt, vi, xi, 3-5, 9, 51.
“Embossed” embroidery, 45.
England, 4, 6, 7-
Europe, 2.

Exodus, the Book off 3, 46.

“Flat” embroidery, 45.

Flemish, 7.

Floral motifs, 16, 22, 26, 37, 39,
43-45, 48, 49. 51-
Footwear, 48, 52.

France, 6, 43.

Funan, 47.

Gabba, 8, 17, 19, 20-22, 55.

Gadag, 36.

Ganga-Jamuna, 39.

Ganges, 42-44.

Gavnti, 39.

Gaya, 42-

Geometrical designs, 7, 26, 38, 44,

48.

ermany, 6, 7, 34, 42
hagra (Skirt), 32, 33

Goa, 36.

Gold, xii, 3, 9, 10, 34, 42, 43,
46.49, 51, 52, 54.

Gopuram, 211, 39, 56.

INDEX

G— contd^

Goyame (Prince), 46.

Greece, 3, 5.

Gujarat, 6.

Gupta, 9.

Hand Design, 40.

Hand embroidery, 15, 44.
Handloom products (see a Is
Loom products), 52,

Hangings, 51.

Harsha, 9, 10, 43.

Hebrew literature, 3.

Hermitage Museum, Leningrad, 3
Herring-bone stitch, 18, 32, 33
44, 52.

Hessian^ 22, 23.

Himachal Pradesh, 51, 52.
Himalayas, 51.

Hindus, 9, 10.

Hoffman, 47.

Homer, 2, 46.

Hoysala, 41.

Hun lan figures, 51.

Hungary, 3, 7.

Hyderabad (Dn.) 40, 48, 52.

Ilkal Khanns, 37.

Ilkal saris, 38, 39.

Inter-laced stitch, 6-7, 30, 31, 33
34.

Iran, 2, 7, 16, 17, 22, 35, 46, 47, 52.
Israelites, 46.

Italy, 6, 7, 10, 43.

Jaipur Museum, 25.

Jali, 45.

Japan, 2, 5, 23.

Jatakas, 47.

Jath, 36.

Jats, 25, 27-28, 54.

Juba, 44.

Justinian, 2.

Kakri Bagh, 27.

Kalidasa, 9, 46.

Kalingana Mada, 38.

Kamdani, 48.

Kamhka (see Kinkhab), 47.

Kanbi, 31.

Kanchuka (Gown), 9.

Kanikar, xii.

Kanpur, 42.

Kantha, 50, 51, 55.

Karchobf 48.

Karnatak, 15, 25, 35, 42, 55.
Kasabt 48.

Kashida, 35.

Kashidan, 35.

> Kashmir, 8, 15-24, 42, 51, 54, 56.
Kasida, 15-24, 33.

Kasida stitches, 15.

KasudUf 35.

Kasuti, vii, 15, 25, 34, 35-41, 42.
Kathiawar, 6, 29, 34, 42, 49, 52,
54.

Khaddar, 26.

Khairpur, 30.

Khanns^ 37, 47.

KhataOy 45.

Kinkhah^ xii, 47, 48.

Kirman, 22.

Koran, 43, 49.

Kuhsa (bodice), 36, 37.

Kulai (bonnet), 36.

Kunchi (bonnet and cape), 36-
Kurta, 48.

Laces, 44, 49, 50.

Laid-stitch, 32, 49.

Lamani^ 41, 52.

Leather, 48, 52.

Levantine, 10.

Line stitch, 39.

Linen, 3, 7, 44, 51.

Looking glass, (see Mirrors.)

Loom products, 43, 44.

Loom tapestries, 44.

Lucknow, 42, 43, 47.

Machine stitch, 18.

Madras, 45, 48.

Makabharataj 46.

Maharashtra, 36.

Masnads^ 49.

Masulipatam, 52.

Matting, 52.

Megasthenes, xii, 9, 43.

Menthi, 39.

Metals, 52.

Middle East, 27, 30.

Milan, 5.

Mircha Bagh, 27.

Mirpurkhas, 30.

Mirror.s, 10, 30-34, 49, 52.
Mochees, 31.

Morocco, 3.

Motifs, 55.

Murgi, 39.

Murri, 44, 45.

Murshidabad, 38, 48.

Muslims, 10, 29, 32, 43, 44, 48
Muslin, 42-44, 46, 47.

M\'.sorc, 37, 38, 40.

Nagara, 37.

Namda, 17, 19, 20.

Natis, 33.

Needle painting, 2.

Needles, xii, 10, 18, 30, 46, 49.
Negi, 39, 40.

Netherlands, 7.

Netra, 9, 10.

Netting, 45, 49.

Newberry (Prof.), 2.

Normandy, 6.

North-West Frontier Province, 4,
50, 52.

Odhni (veil), 32.

Odyssey, 46, 49.

Orissa, 52.

Oudh, 43.

Ovid, 2.

Paliari, 51.

Paithan, 37, 48, 49.

Paithani Khanns, 37.

Pallav, 36, 49.

Pashmina, 21.

Patch-work, 50.

Patna, 42.

Pattadkal, 41.

Pattoos, 21.

Pekin, 48.

Pelliot, 47.

Pelmets, 51.

Persia, (see Iran).

Pesos, xii.

INDEX

P — contd,

Pesashari, xii.

Peshawar, 50, 52.

Phafida, 44, 45.

Pharaohs, vi, 2.

Phanicia, 9.

Phulkari, 25-28, 33, 52.

Plaiting, ix-x.

Pliny, 3, 10.

Poona, 48.

Portugal, 7, 48, 51.

Pottery, ix.

Printed design, 41.

Prints, 52.

Punjab, 21, 25-30, 52, 54,
56.

Quilts, 50, 51.

Rafugari, 18, 21-22.
Rajasthan, 25.

Rangoli, 40.

Religious motifs, 31, 32.

Resht, 8.

Romans, 2.

Rome, 43.

Royal motifs, 32-31.

Rugs, x-xi, 20, 22.
Rumals^ 22, 51.

Running stitch, 49-51.

Saddlery, 52.

Salwaff 48.

Sandals, (see Slippers)

SafiSt 17-19, 23, 36, 38.

Satin» 5, 33.

Satin stitch, 5, 7, 8, 18, 33, 44,
49, 52.

Scandinavia, 7.

Sequin, 42.

Sewing, 10.

Shadow work, 44.

Shcdimar Bagh, 27.

Sharagu, 36, 38-40.

Shatush, 21.

Shawl, 16-21, 47, 51.

Shells, 52.

Shikarpur, 30.

Shoes, (see Slippers.)

Sicily, 3.

Silk, 2, 3, 5, 10, 17, 23, 24, 26-28,
34, 38-40, 43, 46, 48, 49, 51, 52.
Silver, 3, 10, 34, 42, 43, 46-49, 51.
52, 54.

Sind, 6, 29-34, 42, 49, 52, 54, 56.
Sittanavasal, 41.

Slav, 3, 7.

Slippers, 48, 52.

Soznis, 50.

South India, 50, 51.

Spain, 3, 6, 7, 34.

Spangles, 48, 49.

Stem stitches, 18, 44, 49.

Stitched work, 10.

Surat, 48, 49.

Sweden, 17.

Taffeta, 20.

Taipichif 44, 45.
Talaikar, 18.

Tapestry, x-xi, 17, 44.*

Tassels, 52.

Taylor (Meadows), 43.
Textile fabrics, 10, 18, 52.

Thebes, 2.
Torans, 31, 33.
Travanoore, 50.
Tulsi-Katti, 37.

Turbans, 52.

Turkey, 7, 42, 52.

Upholstery designs, 17, 48.

Uttar Pradesh (or United Pro
Vinces), 42-44.

Varaha-godambi, 38.

Vata chikan, 18.

Vedas, xii, 3, 9, 43, 46, 53.

Velvet, 48.

Venice, 42.

Vesara, 37.

Vestments, 6, 10.

Victoria and Albert Museum,
London, 3.

Vienna, 6.

Vijayanagav, 35, 41.

Virgil, 2.

Waist-coats, 48, 52.

Wall paper, xii.

Watts (Sir George), 43.

White embroidery, 42-44.

Wool, 3, 17, 19-22, 46, 52.

Woven design, 39-41.

Yajurveda, 46.
Yeola, 48.
Yiidhisthira, 46.

Zaitun, 47.
Zalakdozi, 18.
Zardozi, 48.
Zig-zag stitch, 39.

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